importance have long departed. Suffice it to say that the Battle of Nankin, admirably as it was arranged for us as a complete English victory, was never fought, and, although the great demonstration before this second city of the Empire had much to do with the promptitude with which the terms of peace were agreed upon and ratified, the last operation of the war of 1841-42 was performed without the shedding of blood on the one side or the other.

The war which had continued during the greater part of two years was at last over. At first conducted without any system, and in a desultory manner, and prosecuted in its larger phases almost with reluctance, the military operations had gone to prove that neither the courage nor the ingenuity of the Celestials could compensate them for the want of proper weapons, and of the discipline and experience in war which made the armies of Europe victorious. Although the English did not enjoy the same superiority in scientific and mechanical engines and instruments as they enjoyed in the second war seventeen years later, yet they possessed so many advantages over Taoukwang's levies that the result of an encounter was never in doubt, even although the latter possessed a strong position and an overwhelming preponderance in numbers. The war of 1842 demonstrated that the English soldier who had vanquished the most warlike races of Hindostan was the superior of the Chinese also on such conditions as they met under forty years ago. But it showed to the intelligent a lesson of different character. The Chinese soldiers were the worst equipped, and the most innocent of military lore

among a long list of foes with whom in the course of a conquering career the sons of these islands had crossed bayonets. Often and often they were no better than a badly-armed mob; and even the Manchus had no more formidable weapons than the bows and spears suitable to an earlier age. Yet on no single occasion did these badly-armed and ignorant men evince cowardice. The English commanders always testified to their gallantry even when helpless, and to their devotion to duty when most other peoples would have thought that the time demanded thought only of safety. Their defeat was under all the circumstances inevitable; they knew how to save their reputation for courage, and to prove beyond the shadow of dispute that men who could fight so manfully when victory was practically impossible could never be permanently conquered, and only needed the proper arms and knowledge to hold their own against the choicest troops of Europe.

CHAPTER VII.

THE TREATY OF NANKIN.

Negotiations.-Description of Nankin.-The Minister Elepoo.Gradual Change in Chinese Policy.-Elepoo's Letter. The English Reply.-Keying.-Negotiations resumed at Nankin.Sir Henry Pottinger's Proclamation.-The Terms of Peace.The Imperial Commission.-Niu Kien's Letter.-Confession* of Military Weakness.-A Long Peace.-Pourparlers.-Memorial to Taoukwang.-" Fighting without the hope of victory." -The Logic of Defeat.-Taoukwang's Reply.-Peace resolved upon. The First Interviews at Nankin.-The Meeting on board the "Cornwallis."-Return Visits.-English in Nankin. -Treaty Signed.-Elepoo's Fortitude.-An English Act of Vandalism. The Porcelain Tower.-Pottinger's Reparation.English Garrisons.-Formosa.-Outrages on Shipwrecked Crews.-Degradation of Officers inculpated.-The Commercial Questions. Drawing up a Tariff.-Opium.-Hopes of legalising it. Backwardness of the English Merchants.Probable Reasons.-The Mob of Canton.-Popular Agitation.-— Threatened Riots.-The Fanquai.-Elepoo's Proclamation.—Elepoo at Canton.--His Death.-Account of his Career.A Manchu. His Virtues.- Keying appointed to take his Place.-Ratification of Treaty.-Increase of Smuggling.The International View of Smuggling.-Obligation on China to put it down. Not realised by the Celestials.-The Growth of Hongkong. Signing of Commercial Treaty.-Pottinger's Proclamation on the Occasion.-All Nations to share in the Treaty Rights.-A French Consulate.-Opium.-Not mentioned in Tariff.-Pottinger states it to be Illegal and Contraband.-How the Matter was left.-Most unsatisfac

tory. A certain Element of Dispute. One unqualified Good.-Study of the Chinese Language.-The Missionaries.Stanislas Julien.-Interpreters and Sinologues.-Staunton and Davis.-Morrison and Gutzlaff.-Others.-The Views of the War.-Called the Opium War.-A Misnomer.--Opium not the Cause. China's Claims.-An impartial Opinion.-" England in the Right." - Professor Adams's Lecture.-The Arrogance of China.-Military Reforms.-Official Punishments.—The English Sovereign.-Concluding Reflections.— The Results of the Struggle.-Much, but not everything gained.

NEGOTIATIONS of an informal character had been begun several months before they were brought to a satisfactory and conclusive issue at Nankin. The minister Elepoo, who had once enjoyed the closest intimacy with Taoukwang, and who represented, better than any other of the chief officials, what might be called the Peace Party--which, without any particular regard for Europeans, desired the termination of an unequal strugglehad neglected no opportunity of learning what were the views of the English officers, and what was the minimum of concession on which peace could be procured. Elepoo alone had striven also to give something of a generous character to the struggle, and he had proved himself, on more than one occasion, a courteous as well as a gallant adversary. After the capture of Chapoo and Woosung, he had sent back several officers and men who, at various times and places, had fallen into the hands of the Chinese, and he had availed himself of the opportunity to address the English commanders as to the misfortunes entailed by a continuance of the strife, and also upon the desirability of coming to as speedy and as amicable an arrangement

as was possible. At the time when he first gave expression to these laudable sentiments, it is clear that Elepoo spoke only on his own authority, and that the hard lesson of submission had not been fully learnt at Pekin; for although his representations could scarcely have failed to impress the Emperor Taoukwang, seeing that the urgent appeals for help in men and money received from every quarter lent irresistible force to his arguments, this minister was for a time disgraced and deprived of his office.*

The reply of the English commanders to Elepoo's letter had been clear and to the point. They reciprocated the desire of the Chinese officer for the cessation of hostilities; but Her Majesty's Plenipotentiary could only treat with some high official directly empowered by the Emperor to conclude a treaty. Had Elepoo received that authority? If he had not, it was impossible to discuss affairs with him, or to suspend the progress of

* The closing paragraph of Elepoo's letter to Sir Hugh Gough deserves quotation:-" Our two Empires have now for three years been at war; the soldiers and people who have been killed are innumerable, and the misery entailed is unspeakable and grievous to recount. It is therefore requisite, in accordance with the Celestial rule, to feel regret at those evils, and to put down the war; but if one proves disobedient to the dictates of Heaven it is to be feared that Heaven will visit us with punishment, and who will be able to endure this? Your honourable country has hitherto laid strong stress upon commerce, and considered war as nefarious, with the hope of putting a stop to the misery of war, and enjoying the advantages of an open market. Now if this takes place, the people of your honourable country may all return home and enjoy their property, and the men of our own nation could also every one of them go back to their families and gain a livelihood, enjoying the blessings of peace. Is not this far better than to fight for successive years and fill the land with the bodies of the slain ?" This letter was written about the 1st of June.— (Translated by Gutzlaff) "Chinese Repository," vol. xii. p. 345.