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mestic apartments, and in all cases makes a deposit of soot in our chimnies. This matter is so well understood by engineers and persons entrusted with the management of steamengines, that the superintendents are directed to throw on only a very small portion of fuel at a time, or in such quantity only as shall immediately enable the vapour from it to be converted into flame, instead of allowing it to pass up the chimney-flue as dense black smoke.* The portion of heat lost to any apartment from this source, in the lighter or more inflammable species of coal, may be estimated at not less than one fourth of its value: for, taking the whole quantity of gas obtained from each chaldron of good bituminous coal at eleven or twelve thousand cubic feet, about a fair average, we may estimate the gaseous products of the coal as the major half of its value. Indeed the comparative weight of coal and coke from the gas works will give very nearly the same results.

Now with the view of economising this inflammable gas for domestic purposes, several plans present themselves to our notice, besides that of supplying fresh coals to a fire in small quantities. Every good housewife knows that a fire made with part cinders and part coal is a more durable fire, and affords much greater heat, than one made from fresh coals only; the reason of which is obvious: the cinders, which have lost their gaseous products, serve to retain the escape of the bitumen, or oily smoke, of new coal, till it becomes ignited, and thus gives out considerable heat to the apartment instead of escaping up the chimney.

But the same object may be attained by using ashes mixed with fresh coals; though the system may not meet the approbation of extravagant servants who have a direct interest in the amount of their master's coal account, from the pernicious system of tradesmen allowing a per-centage on many articles of consumption, to the upper servants in large establishments. It would not perhaps be too much to es

It would be foreign to the objects of my present paper to enter into any description of the methods employed in steam-engine and other furnaces for consuming the smoke.

[Dec.

timate the consumption of coal in noblemen and gentlemen's families from this cause alone at less than twenty to thirty per cent. beyond what it ought to be with any moderate economy. To many servants the recommendation of economy while in good service, would be about as effective as to preach about probity to a receiver of stolen goods, But when the day arrives that those persons have to pay for their own consumption of fuel, the case widely dif fers and it is possible, Mr. Urban, that some such persons may perchance see the present number of your Magazine, and be reminded of their former errors in this way.

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The admixture of ashes with small coal will undoubtedly effect a considerable saving of fuel, perhaps equal to twenty per cent. But as it would, if quite dry, have a tendency to run through the grate too freely, that objection might in a great measure be obviated by slightly wetting the mass either before or after laying it on the fire; and thus enabling the small coal to cement or cake together.

Another mode of economising fuel, not unworthy of attention at a period when we are threatened with a visitation of the most serious kind, is that of mixing small or inferior coal with a given quantity of clay; or, if convenient, with a portion of any dry vegetable matter in the mass, such as the sweepings of stable-yards, barns, or out-houses, and then forming the mass into balls, which should be left to dry. Although such kind of compost would not be adapted for fuel where for domes. tic purposes an active fire is requisite; yet in a majority of cases, where a slow fire is only required, or where it is desirable to prevent a fire made of coals only from burning out with too much rapidity, a very great saving of coals might be effected by covering the coal fire with a layer of such compost of small coal, clay, &c. so as to prevent the inflammable gas of the coal from passing up the chimney withut being ignited.

The abundance of fuel in this country, together with the injudicious construction of stoves, renders the consumption of coal at least double what it need be with the same degree of domestic comfort under economical management. There is little probability of extravagant servants being induced by any arguments to economise fuel,

1831.]

more especially those who have the substantial reasons before-mentioned. I am not without the hope, Mr. Urban, that some of the before-mentioned suggestions may be found worthy of consideration by a very large portion of the industrious classes of society, who from the want of adequate employment and the pressure of the times are enduring infinitely more privations of the necessaries of life than the sturdy pauper who boldly throws himself upon the parochial funds. At the present season of the year fuel becomes as much a necessary of life as food. If, therefore, by the dispensations of Providence, the Metropolis should become subjected to the scourge that now afflicts the northern part of the kingdom, every suggestion that may serve to alleviate the miseries of the humbler classes, by inculcating habits of economy, must be acceptable to the public through the valuable medium of the Gentleman's Magazine.

PHILANTHROPOS.

July 16.

Mr. URBAN, HAVING visited Stonehenge in a little excursion I lately made, I beg to offer a few observations on that extraordinary edifice.

Most persons who have visited these remains, I believe, remark that they do not impress any idea of grandeur, or produce any imposing effect, when viewed at a distance. This certainly When I

was not the case with me.

looked down from the brow of the hill on the Amesbury road, these yet magnificent ruins, denoting a circular temple, the distinct parts of which were composed of single massive rocks, impressed on my mind a stupendous work of vast but rude conception.

Having myself conceived a notion, that it was a temple, the form of which had reference to celestial objects, and that the sun was probably the object more particularly contemplated by the people who planned and erected it, I was no way dissatisfied with reading the ideas of others on this subject, and not discouraged in this idea on my closer view and inspection of the remains.

I made a close and careful examination, and took measurements of many parts, which I believe are tolerably accurate. The result is to give a different figure to the two interior orders or arrangements of stones; the

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figures of which are called by Stukeley and others ovals, and by Inigo Jones, hexagonals. By my

*

measurements these two orders of the stones stand concentric, or nearly so, with the outer circles; consequently they form a portion of a circle, as far as they extend. They have consisted, first, of an outer set of five pairs of stupendous rocks, with a third placed on, or crowning the top of each pair. Two pairs and two single ones remain standing. The standards of each pair are set very close together; but a considerable space or interval occurs between each pair; and in the front or opening north-east, a very large space or interval occurs (45 feet), which has no doubt led some people to conclude a sixth pair was formerly existing; but this was evidently never the case, for the space is filled up or marked with a straight line by the continuation of the inner small order of stones, which give a figure to the two interior orders of a large portion of a circle (or nearly that figure). Taking the diameter of the circle at 52 feet, on the radius + of which the extreme inner angles of the great standards are placed, the intersection at two points on the radius, giving the space of 45 feet between them, will cut off about one-fourth of the circle, and consequently leave three-fourths for the space included within the stones: thus giving a very good form of a theatre, with a front or proscenium, where the straight line is marked by the smaller set or order of stones, to view or look into the interior part. The straight line of the part forming the front, determines the figure, and necessarily precludes the introducing a sixth pair of standards, which, therefore, we may conclude never were in existence. There is no vestige of such; and no account, I believe, not even the oldest, detailing any particulars of the form and order of the stones, ever alludes to there having been any.

In support of this notion, that the

*This led Inigo Jones to call the figure hexagonal, and Dr. Smith to imagine there were seven pair of standards; but Stukeley only speaks of ten of these stones, which only make five pair; all of which, standing or prostrate, were in existence July 1831.

King, speaking of the figure as oval, says, the shortest diameter is about 52 feet.

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figure was as stated, the space between the inner corners of the great standards at the front (a pair of which are standing on the east side, and a single one the northermost on the west) which I measured to be about 45 feet, is, as I have before stated, marked by a straight line of smaller stones from side to side. Of these there are four remaining, one of the small taper kind of stones, and three flattish stones, with spaces just sufficient for two other stones, thus making the number six in all, and forming the line of the proscenium or front. The small inner taper stone is on the east; then there is a space between that and the next, a flat-shaped stone, for a similar shaped stone. The three remaining flattish stones come next in a line, at about equal distances from each other, and in a line with the small taper stone and the interior side of the remaining upright standard on the north, with space between the flattish stone nearest that side and such remaining standard, for a small taper inner stone.

The form of the theatre or inner compartment would, according to what can be designed from the remains of these interior orders or arrangements, be represented by the annexed sketch (see p. 517).

To confirm this idea, there are two other flattish, dark-coloured, and very hard stones, like flinty slate, (forming part of the line of the second or small circle of stones), which stand in a line with the stones at the entrance in the outer circle, and the two central flattish stones of the front of the theatre, which seem to mark the line of approach or entrance into the theatre.

Much has been observed by writers as to the altar stone, and in the course of my examination 1 directed my attention to this subject. I was much surprised to find, after what I had read, that instead of one stone (that underlying the greater fallen standard at the back and the impost), there is another, as similar as it is possible, and of the same quality of stone, but rather darker, lying close by it, as if thrown down at the same period.

The stone I allude to lies ob

*This stone is shown in Wood's groundplan of Stonehenge; but the size is not correctly or proportionably given, and the corner or end under the earth is marked so as to appear as if broken off.

[Dec.

liquely, with one end covered in the earth, at the south-east, and in front of the large leaning standard at the back of the theatre, which hangs over it, and lies in fact between the southern end of the large fallen impost of the back pair of standards and the small taper inner stone, on which the great leaning standard apparently rests. This stone I measured, and found its dimensions corresponding with the stone called the altar, the part covered being added to that exposed. The measurements of these stones I made less than Mr. Webb's account stated in Stukeley. Time may have diminished their size; but my measurements correspond with the proportions in Wood's plan.

The stone called the altar, according to my note, is rather better than four yards long and one wide, and half a yard thick. The other I have alluded to was nearly the same, that is, three yards and a half uncovered, and as far as I could thrust my stick under the earth, I felt the stone: I may safely add half a yard more for this. The breadth and thickness corresponded with the stone called the altar. Both stones evidently lie out of place; but the fair supposition is, the one being underneath the fallen standard and impost, and the other close by them, that they are near the original site, and have been thrown down at the same time, from their lying next and under the great standards at the back: that this is the case, there can I think be no doubt.

It will be seen, from there being two stones as just described, the idea of the stone under the great standard and impost being the altar, and that it laid flat, and has not been disturbed from its original position in the edifice, cannot be right. That it formed part of the altar is probable; and 1 beg leave to offer this conjecture. There being a pair of stones, as before described, evidently lying as they were first prostrated, they formed two uprights in front of the two inner upright taper stones of the inner order, and in front of the two great standards, and mark the place at the foot of which the victims of sacrifice were immolated; and let it be observed, that there is a little impost lying to the east towards the entrance, between the outer circle of stones and the two interior orders; this small impost is of such inferior dimensions

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to all the other remaining imposts which could ever have formed imposts, either to the outer circle, or those of the great inner standards, that it could not have been one of them.

The dimensions of this small impost are one yard, wanting an inch, between the inner edges of the mortices, which are scooped or formed more circularly than the mortices of the other imposts appear to be. The mortices of this small impost are nearly one foot wide at the mouth or opening, and about one foot or 18 inches within the extremities of the stone; so that these dimensions would give a length of from 7 to 8 feet. Now if these two stones I have just alluded to as the altar, were set upright and near together, as each pair of standards are, this little stone would just reach over both, and form a crown or impost to them; and make a corresponding form or figure for an altar, similar to the great standards, but very inferior in size. The little impost is of a hard compact sandstone, of the same kind with the large upright stones or standards, while the two stones alluded to are of the dark kind. It might be worth while to examine the end of the two stones, as a tenon or trace of such might be found, and if it were, it would confirm this conjecture. I imagine the prostrate stone lying obliquely, and near the leaning standard, to have fallen outward; and, if so, a tenon may be discovered at the end concealed under the earth. If this little impost is not that of these two stones, then I cannot conceive in what other part of the structure it could have had a place. It is too short to leave a space wide enough between the supporters to pass under, and there appears nothing corresponding in the whole place, or in what can be collected from the remnants, to assign it a place, or call for its use otherwise than as an impost at the altar. To account for its lying apart from the back of the theatre, or where the two stones are lying, the smallness of its size would render it more easily moved than the two stones, its supposed supporters. If the desecration of the temple was begun by human hands, of which in my mind there is no doubt, the altar or place of sacrifice, as the most sacred part, would be that to which most attention would be

[Dec.

directed; and having thrown down the altar, the spoilers would attempt to take away the small impost or crown; though its great size stopped their progress.

In the spirit of religious zeal, when Christianity began to be introduced, and gained ascendancy, I conceive this temple might have been an object of vengeance, and it is probable that the first part of the destruction (whatever time may since have contributed) was the hand of man, directed by some impulse of viewing it as an abomination; and it is possible to conceive, that after the altar was prostrated, when the first great fallen stone of the standard and its enormous impost were overthrown, these remains would be left in the state in which they have been recognized for

ages.

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I noted the small inner taper stone, on which the great standard at the back leans or rests, as having a groove from top to base. It is too regular not to be artificial, and to assign it a use, I suppose it might serve to lodge a pole or ensign, perhaps the staff of the chief Druid, that might be fastened by passing a string or thong round the stone and hence an idea arises, that the smaller taper stones might serve to bind or fasten the victims, either of prisoners or cattle, to be offered for sacrifice. There can be little doubt but they are sunk very deep, and firmly fixed in the chalk soil. I also noted that in the second circle, among the taper stones, there appeared some flattish stones, some of which are in a line with the entrance I have before noticed; but there was another at the south, near or under one of the large outer stones that was thrown down or broken. The dark stones appear of two kinds; one I believe called a grunstein, and the other a kind of flinty slate. The small stones, in general, appeared of the sandstone kind.

Of the two outlying stones in what is called the avenue of approach, if there were not corresponding standards to make pairs and bear imposts, which I think was not the case, as there are no remaining signs of such construction-then, as we must assign a meaning for what we do find to be in existence in all relics of this kind, it is reasonable to suppose that these two stones marked the line of approach; for, standing at the most dis