doned, though it has been quite as injurious to us as it can be to them. We had hoped that sound commercial principles were beginning to get an ascendancy at Petersburgh, inasmuch as the ukase of the 26th of March, 1830, materially modified several of the previous restrictions. But more recently a new ukase made its appearance, enacting a considerable increase of duties on several articles. It is, we are afraid, pretty clear, that the Russian government has profited little by the admirable work of M. Storch (Cours d'Economie Politique), though written for the special use of the present emperor of Russia, and his brother the Grand Duke Michael, and published by order of the late emperor.

Inspection of Goods.-At Petersburgh, Riga, and other Baltic ports, when goods are brought from the interior to be shipped, they are inspected and classified according to their qualities, by officers (brackers) appointed by government for that purpose, and sworn to the faithful performance of their duty. All sorts of timber, linen and canvass, flax and hemp, linseed and hemp seed, ashes, wax, &c. are subject to such inspection. They are generally divided into three qualities: Krohn (crown), or superior; Brack, or middling; and BracksBrack, or inferior. This classification is said to be, in most cases, made with considerable fairness. A factor or commission agent in Russia, instructed to buy on account of his correspondent in England or Holland, a specified quantity of any description of produce subject to the official visit, is not liable to any action in the event of the article being found, upon delivery, to be of inferior quality, provided he produce a certificate to show that it had been officially inspected, or bracked. But a factor is at liberty, should any article delivered to him be manifestly defective, to name 1 or 2 other brackers to decide whether the article be merchantable or not.

Native and Foreign Merchants, &c.-Every Russian carrying on trade must be a burgher, and have his name registered in the burghers' book; he thus acquires an unlimited freedom of trade. All whose names are in the burghers' books, are either townsmen who have property within the city, or members of a guild. There are three guilds. Those belonging to the first, must possess from 10,000 to 50,000 roubles; these may follow foreign trade, are not liable to corporal punishment, and may drive about the city in carriages drawn by 2 horses. Those belonging to the second guild declare themselves possessed of from 5,000 to 10,000 roubles; they are confined to inland trade. A capital of from 1,000 to 5,000 roubles entitles its owner to admission into the third guild, which comprises shopkeepers and petty dealers. The rates paid by the members of these guilds amount to 1 per cent. upon their declared capital, the "statement of which is left to the conscience of every individual." Burghers are not obliged to serve in the army, but may provide a substitute, or pay a fine. The guests, or foreign merchants, who enrol themselves in the city register on account of their commercial affairs, enjoy privileges nearly similar to those enjoyed by the members of the first guild.

None but native Russians are allowed to engage in the internal trade of the country; and hence a foreigner, who imports goods into Russia, must sell them to Russians only, and at the port where they arrive. A few foreigners, indeed, settled in Russia, and having connections with the natives, do carry on a trade with the interior; but it is contrary to law, and the goods are liable to be seized.

The merchants engaged in foreign trade are mostly foreigners, of whom the English are the principal. The peculiar privileges formerly enjoyed by the latter are now nearly obsolete; and their rights, in common with those of other foreigners, are merely those of guests. The English factory is, at present, little more than a society formed of some of the principal English merchants, several of whom, however, do not belong to it: its power extends to little else than the management of certain funds under its control.

Purchase and Sale of Commodities, &c.-Owing to the scarcity of capital in Russia, goods, the produce of the country, are frequently paid in advance; and foreign goods are most commonly sold upon credit. From the month of November till the shipping season in May, the Russians who trade in flax, hemp, tallow, bristles, iron, &c. either come themselves to Petersburgh, or employ agents to sell their goods to foreigners, to be delivered, according to agreement, in May, June, July, or August. The payments are made according to the circumstances of the sellers and buyers; sometimes the buyer pays the whole amount, in the winter months, for the goods which are to be delivered in the summer or autumn; and sometimes he pays a part on concluding the contract, and the remainder on delivery of the goods. The manufacturers and dealers in linen usually come to Petersburgh in March, and sell their goods for ready money.

Foreign goods were formerly almost entirely sold at a twelvemonth's credit, and some at a still longer term; but of late years several articles, as coffee and sugar, are sold for ready money: still, however, the great bulk of foreign goods for the supply of the interior is sold on credit. Most of the Russians who buy goods on credit of foreigners, for the use of the interior, have no other connection or trade with Petersburgh, than merely coming there once or twice a year to make purchases: which having accomplished, they set off with the goods, and the foreigner neither sees nor hears of them again till the bills become due.

It is obvious, from this statement, that experience and sagacity are nowhere more requisite in a merchant than here. He has nothing, in fact, but his own knowledge of the native dealers to depend upon: and it is highly creditable to the Russians, that foreigners do not hesitate to trust them with immense sums on such a guaranty. A foreign merchant carrying on business in Russia, must also VOL. II.-2 B

37

be acquainted with the customary forms and obligations of contracts; the mode of making payments; the many formalities that encumber, and sometimes turn aside the course of justice; the spirit, still more than the letter, of the tariff and the Custom-house regulations; the privileges claimed by the Crown, and the different orders; with a variety of other particulars, which attentive and able men may learn on the spot, and nowhere else.

"Another circumstance connected with the British trade is too curious to be passed in silence. Every mercantile house in Petersburgh employs certain men, called in the language of the country artelschicks, who are the counting-house men, and employed by every merchant to collect payment on bills, and to receive money, as well as, in many instances, to pay it in very considerable sums. This is an important part of their trust. There being no bankers in Russia, every mercantile house keeps its own cash; and as the payments between merchants, and for bills of exchange, are made entirely in bank notes of no higher value than 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 roubles-most of them in so tattered a state as to require several hours to count over a sum of 2,000l. or 3,000.-this business is performed by artelschicks; and very few instances have occurred of loss by their inattention, either in miscounting the notes, in taking false notes, or, where they are much torn, in receiving parts of different bank notes. "These artelschicks are also employed to superintend the loading and unloading the different cargoes; they receive the most valuable into the warehouse, where they are left solely under their care; and in these warehouses not merely merchandise, but often large quantities of dollars, are deposited. These Russians are mostly natives of Archangel and the adjacent governments, of the lowest class; are often slaves, generally of the Crown: and the only security of the merchant arises in some degree from the natural reluctance of the Russian to betray confidence reposed in him; but in a much greater from their association, which is called an artel.

"An artel consists of a certain number of labourers, who voluntarily become responsible, as a body, for the honesty of each individual. The separate earnings of each man are put into the common stock; a monthly allowance is made for his support; and at the end of the year the surplus is equally divided. The number varies in different associations from 50 to 100; and so advantageous is it considered to belong to one of these societies, that 500 and even 1,000 roubles are paid for admission. These societies are not bound by any law of the empire, or even written agreement; nor does the merchant restrain them under any legal obligation; yet there has been no instance of their objecting to any just claim, or of protecting an individual whose conduct had brought a demand on the society." -(Coxe's Travels in Russia, vol. iii. p. 315.)

Few Russian merchants engage in foreign trade. It is carried on principally in foreign bottoms, of which by far the larger proportion are English. Marine insurances are generally effected in London or Amsterdam; there being no establishment for that department of business in Russia. An insurance company against fire has been established in Petersburgh, and enjoys several privileges. It is a joint stock company, divided into actions, or shares. It has been very successful; and its shares are at a very high premium. No insurance on houses or goods in Russia, made in a foreign country, can be legally recovered; no official documents of loss being allowed to be furnished for such a purpose.

Money.-Accounts are kept at Petersburgh, and throughout Rus- | sia, in bank roubles of 100 copecks: formerly, accounts were kept in silver money; but, by an order of government, the practice of keeping accounts in bank note roubles has been enforced since 1811, to the exclusion of the other.

The only gold coin at present struck is the 1-2 Imperial, or 5 rouble piece, 15s. 8d. s'erling very nearly. The silver rouble is worth 3s. 2 3-4d. sterling very nearly; and is declared, by a ukase issued in 1829, to be worth 360 copecks: this would give the value of the paper rouble at nearly 11d.; but it fluctuates with the exchange.-(For an account of the Commercial Bank of Russia, see vol. i., p. 124.) Weights and Measures.-The Russian weights are the same for gold, silver, and merchandise, viz.

3 Soltnicks = 1 Loth.

32 Loths =1 Pound.

40 Pounds 1 Pood.

10 Poods = 1 Berkovitz.

The Rusian pound contains, according to Dr. Kelly, 6318-5 English grains. Hence, 100 lbs. Russian 90-26 lbs. avoirdupois = 40.93 kilog. The pood 36 lbs. 1 oz. 11 drs., but among merchants it is reckoned 36 lbs. According to Nelkenbrecher, 100 lbs. Russian 90 19 lbs. avoirdupois 40·9 kilog. 82.8 lbs. of Amsterdam 84-444 of Hamburgh.

The following regulations for the importation of
All goods imported must be accompanied by the following docu-

ments:

1. The declaration of the captain, according to the form ordered by the Custom-house. 2. An attestation from the Russian consul, and where there is no consul, from the Custom house of the place, of the quantity and quality of the goods, and a declaration that they are not the produce, manufacture, or property of an enemy's country.

3. Bills of lading of all goods, in which the weight, measure, or quantity of each package must be specified. In case the bills of lading are not exactly after this regulation, the goods pay double duty as a fine. In case more is found than specified in the bill of lading, the surplus is confiscated; if less is found, the duty must be paid on the quantity specified. Of wine, it is not sufficient to specify the

The principal measure for corn is the chetwert, divided into 2 osmins, 4 pajocks, 8 chetwericks, or 64 garnitz. The chetwert = 5.952 Winchester bushels. Hence, 100 chetwerts = 744 English quarters.

In liquid measure,
11 Tsharky
8 Krashka
40 Wedros
The wedro

wine gallons.

1 Krashka.
| Wedro.

1 Sorokovy.

= 3 1-4 English

13 1-3 Bottles 1 Wedro.

3 Wedros = 1 Anker. 6 Ankers = 1 Oxhoft. = 1 Pipe.

2 Oxhoft

In long measure,

16 Wershok = 1 Arsheen. 3 Arsheen = 1 Sashen. 500 Sashen = 1 Verst.

1 sashen = 7 English feet; 1 arsheen 28 English inches. 100 Russian feet 114 1-2 English feet. The verst, or Russian mile, = 5 furlongs 12 poles. The English inch and foot are used throughout Russia, chiefly, however, in the measuring of timber.-(Kelly's Cambist, art. Russia; Nelkenbrecher, Manuel Universel.)

In fixing freight to England, a ton is 63 poods of hemp, flax, tallow, iron, copper, and ashes; 44 poods of bristles, isinglass, leather, and wax; 5 dozen of deals; 3,500 hare skins; 8 chetwerts of wheat or linseed; and 60 pieces of sail-cloth.

foreign goods are strictly enforced :

number of pipes or hogsheads only, but also their contents in gallons, &c. Of lemons, the number in each box must be specified. Of ma nufactured goods, the measure of each piece must be specified, and the number of pieces in each bale. It is indifferent whether the gross or the nett weight be specified. If the packages be all of the same weight, measure, or contents, a general specification will do, as for example, 100 casks alum, of 17 lispound each. Of dye woods, the weight of the whole need only be mentioned. Of goods of small bulk, as pepper, &c., it is sufficient to state the weight of every 5 or 10 bales, but with specification of the numbers. There must not be any erasures or blots in the bill of lading. All goods not accompa nied by these documents, or where the documents are not according to the above regulations, will be sent back.

Bills of lading may be made out either to some house, or to order.

The following charges have been fixed by the merchants of Petersburgh :

Moist Goods imported.-The following are some of the tares specified in the tariff:—

Olive oil in casks

of Italy, in flasks and straw

of France, in flasks and earthenware

Salt fish in barrels.

And generally on all moist goods in barrels in glass and earthenware.

Miscellaneous Goods.

Cotton twist in bales

in chests and barrels

Bills drawn in Russia, and payable after date, are allowed 10 days' grace: but if payable at sight, 3 days only: Sundays and holidays are included in both cases. The Julian calendar, or old style, is still retained throughout Russia. This is twelve days later than the new style; and in leap-years, 13 days, after the month of February.

Port Charges payable on British Ships at the Port of Petersburgh.

1-1 191 201 211 221 231 241 251 261 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 250 260 2706

Total .

R.

Lastage
Passes

Clearing passes in Cron

stadt

Address money

R. R. R. R 12 16 20 24 28

60 60 60 60 60

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 90 100 100 110 110 120 12 130 130 140 140 150 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 25 29 31 33 34 36 38 40 41 43 45 46 75 80 8 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140

6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 23 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54

Roubles 168 196 214 232 259 277 295 322 340 358 386 403 431 449 176 494 522 539 567 585 613 630 658 676 703

10 10: 80 90 70 75 24 26

Ships cleared out from Petersburgh during the Nine Years ending with 1833.

The trade of Petersburgh is exhibited in the following Tables:-
I. Official Statement of the Trade of Petersburgh in 1833.

II. Official Account of the Values of the Imports into and Exports from Petersburgh, with the Produce of the Custom Duty thereon, in each Year since 1800.

III. Official List of Goods cleared for Exportation at the Petersburgh Custom-house, during the Six Years ending with 1835.

IV. Account of the Quantities of the Principal Articles of Foreign Produce imported into Petersburgh in each of the Four Years ending with 1835.

V. Official Statement of the Trade of the principal Russian Cities in 1830 and 1831.

VI. Official Statement of the British and Foreign Shipping at the Port of Petersburgh, during the Year ending the 31st of December, 1833.

Remarks on Tables.-It would appear from the above Tables, that the trade of Petersburgh has increased with extraordinary rapidity since 1812. But though its increase since that epoch has been very considerable, it has not been by any means so great as might be inferred from the previous statements.

* Of these, 155 ships brought coals.