...

et... et; et. -que (atque); -que... et; -que ... -que (poet.), both.... and.

nec (neque) ... nec (neque); neque... nec; nec... neque (rare), neither ... nor.

et... neque, both . . . and not.

sed, autem, verum, vero, at, atqui, but.

tamen, attamen, sed tamen, verumtamen, but yet, nevertheless. nihilominus, none the less.

at vero, enimvero, but (for) in truth. ceterum, on the other hand, but.

c. Causal.

nam, namque, enim, etenim, for.

quia, quod, because.

quoniam, quippe, cum (quom), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, utpote, since, inasmuch as.

d. Illative.

ergo, igitur, itaque, ideo, idcirco, proinde, therefore. propterea (... quod), for this reason (... that).

quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quocirca, unde, wherefore, whence.

e. Comparative.

ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as. tamquam (tanquam), quasi, utsi, acsi, as if.

quam, atque (ac), as, than.

f. Conditional.

si, if; sin, but if; nisi (ni), unless, if not; quod si, but if. modo, dum, dummodo, si modo, if only, provided. dummodo ne (dum ne, modo ne), provided only not.

g. Concessive.

etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, tamenetsi, quamquam, although. quamvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, however much.

licet, ut, cum (quom), though.

NOTE. A concessive is often followed by an adversative: as, tamenetsi... tamen nihilominus, though . . . yet none the less.

h. Temporal.

cum (quom), cum primum, ubi, ut, ut primum, postquam, when. prius quam, before (non ante... quam, not

quam, ante.

until).

...

quando, simulatque (simul ac), simul, as soon as. dum, usque dum, donec, quoad, until.

i. Final.

ut (uti), quo, in order that.

ne, ut ne, lest (in order that not); neve (neu), nor.

quin (after negatives), quominus, but that (so as to prevent).

k. Interjections.

O, en, ecce, ehem, papae, vah (of astonishment).

io, evae, evoe (of joy).

heu, eheu, vae, alas! (of sorrow).

heus, eho, ehodum, ho! (of calling).

eia, euge (of praise).

proh (of attestation): as, proh pudor, shame!

3. Special Meaning. The following list includes most. of the conjunctions whose meaning or use requires special notice:

a. Et, and, connects independent words or clauses; -que (enclitic) combines closely into one connected whole; atque (sometimes ac before consonants) adds with emphasis. In the second member, and not is expressed by neque or nec.

Atque (ac), as, is also used after words of comparison and likeness, as idem, the same, simul, as soon, aliter, otherwise.

b. Sed and vērum or vero (more forcible), but, are used to contradict what precedes, - always after negatives; at, yet, introtroduces with emphasis a new point, especially in argument (at enim almost always) alluding to a supposed statement on the other side; autem is used in the same way, especially in transitions, but with less force.

c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (-ve) gives a choice; sive (seu) is properly used in disjunctive conditions, but is also used with single words, especially two names for the same thing. (But of aut and vel the use is not always clearly distinguished.)

d. Nam (namque), for, introduces a sufficient reason; ĕnim, an explanatory circumstance; etenim (for, you see; for, you know), something self-evident, or needing no proof.

e. Ergo, therefore, is used of things proved logically; ităque, in proofs from the nature of things; igitur, then (a weak ergo), in passing from one stage of the argument to another, often merely to resume; idcirco, for this reason, to call attention to a special point.

f. Quia, because, regularly introduces a fact; quod, either a fact or a statement or allegation; quoniam, since, has reference to motives.

g. Quom (cum), when, is always a relative conjunction, often a correlative with tum; quando is also used as interrogative or indefinite (quando? when? si quando, if ever).

h. Et... et, means simply both ... and; cum (less frequently tum)... tum has also the meaning not only . . . but also, emphasizing the second member.

i. Autem, enim, vero, always follow one or two words in their clause; the same is generally true of igitur, and often of

tamen.

k. Conjunctions are often doubled, for the sake of emphasis, or to bind a sentence more closely to the preceding: as, at vero, itaque ergo (namque, etenim). The same is true of Relatives, which are equivalent to a conjunction and demonstrative combined: as, qui ubi sit nescio, for where he is I know not.

44. DERIVATION OF WORds.

The RooT is a primitive element of speech. All roots are monosyllabic, and have a short vowel. STEMS are formed from roots, and are divided into two main groups; viz., noun-stems (including adjectives) and verb-stems.

1. Noun Forms. Derivative Nominal forms include (1) nouns of agency, (2) names of actions, (3) active and passive adjectives.

NOTE. - Examples of roots are Es, be; I, go; STA, stand; CAP, take; DUC, lead; FAC, make; FER, bear; RAP, seize; SED, sit; TEN, stretch (see also pp. 72, 73); da (40), give; DHA (OE), put.

a. Roots and Stems. Roots may be used as stems (1) without change, as in dŭc-is, něc-is; (2) with vowel-increase, as in luc-is, pāc-is; (3) with reduplication, as in furfur, marmor; (4) compounded, as in judic-is (jus, dico), conjug-is (con-jugo). But Stems are more commonly formed by means of suffixes added to the root (primary), or to a stem (secondary), either with or without the above changes.

b. Primary Suffixes. The simplest suffixes are the vowels a (in Latin o, a), i, u. Other primary suffixes are ta, ti, tu; na, ni, nu; va, ra, ya, ka, an.

NOTE. The vowel-suffixes a, i, u, are sometimes regarded as if merely added to the root to fit it for inflection; but they are, in fact, true pronominal roots, and must be regarded as formative suffixes. The first is found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems, as ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG); -i is less common, and in Latin has frequently disappeared, especially in the nominative, as in scobs (scobis, root SCAB); -u is disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in suavis (for suadvis, cf. novç), tenuis (root TEN in tendo), and remains alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, sharp, in acer, acies, ¿кús), pecu (root PAK, bind, in paciscor).

The signification of the other primary suffixes is as follows: -ta (in the form to-) makes the regular perfect participle, as tectus, tectum ; sometimes active, as in potus, pransus; and is found in a few not recognized as participles, as putus, altus (alo); -ti forms abstracts, rarely nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens; - tu forms abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as actus, luctus; na, forming perfect participles in other languages, in Latin makes adjectives of like meaning, which often become nouns, as magnus (= mactus, root MAG), plenus, regnum ;— ni, nouns of agency and adjectives, as ignis, segnis;-nu, rare, as in manus, sinus;-ma, various, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma; -va (commonly uo), of active or passive meaning, as in equus, arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivos (vacuus); -ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), usually passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-que (= plenus = -plētus), sella (for sed-la, cf. &dpa); -ya (gerundives in other languages), adjectives and abstracts, including many of the first and fifth declensions, as eximius, audacia, Florentia, pernicies;-ka, sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. Tavрos), locus (for stlocus, cf. Sk. sthara, sthala, Ger. Stelle, Eng. stall);-an (in, on), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as aspergo, compago (inis), gero (ōnis).

The above, with some compound suffixes given below, belong to the original language, and most of them were not felt as living formations in the literary period. But developed forms of these, with a few other primary suffixes, were used consciously, generally as secondary suffixes. The old primary suffixes thus used are (along with ta and tu, given above) man, ant, vant, tar, tro, as. (Observe that it is the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, although the nominative is given for convenience of reference.)

c. Significant Endings. The principal classes of regular derivate nouns and adjectives, as indicated by their nominativeending, are the following:

1. Nouns of Agency (active adjectives or appellatives), ending in

tor (lengthened from tăr, M.), trix (trīc-=tar+ic, F.), added to the same form of stem that precedes t of the supine (which for convenience may be called the supine-base), or to nounstems by analogy: as ductor, victrix, viator. Earlier formations with tar are patěr, matĕr.

es (-Itis), descriptive nouns, as miles, comes.

2. Names of Actions (passing into abstracts, instruments, results):

or (M.), es, is (F.), us, ur, (N.): as timor, sedes, decus, robur. io (added to pres. stem), tio, tura, tus (to supine base), verbal abstracts as legio, actio, pictura, cultus (those in tus more concrete).

ium (ya) forms neuter abstracts (from verb-stems), as gaudium; or from nouns meaning offices or groups: as hospitium, servitium, collegium.

men (man), mentum (man+ta),` monia, monium (man+ ya), denoting act, means, or result: as flumen, querimonia. is, tia, tas, tus, tudo, do, go, (F.) abstracts, rarely concrete: as audacia, militia, duritia (ies), bonitas, servitus, altitudo, lanugo. brum, crum, trum, bălum, călum, bra: denoting means, usually from verb-stems: as claustrum, vehiculum, turibulum.

3. Adjective Forms, passing often into Nouns.

a. Nominal.

ŭlus (following a vowel, ŏlus; following s, n, r, călus), ellus, illus, DiminutIVE nouns or adjectives, with endings for gender: as puerculus, puella ( puerula), puellula, asellus (asinulus), misellus (miserulus). Rare forms, eculeus, homuncio. ǎdes (r. as), ïdes, ides (F. is, ēis), ēus, PATRONYMICS, denoting parentage, &c., as Eneădes, Priamides, Priamēis.

ānus, ēnus, īnus; as (-ātis), ensis; ius ēius, Icius iăcus, ācius, denoting belonging to or coming from (often GENTILE). āris, ālis, ēlis, īlis, ūlis (all from ra), with īnus, and nus, denoting various ideas of relation or possession: -ile (N. of ilis) denotes place, as ovile; -āle, -āre (N. of ālis, āris) usually losing e, become nouns ; -īna, F., from names of animals, often means their flesh; nus and tinus, form adjectives of time,

as vernus.

ter (tris), tĭmus, as campester, maritimus; ternus, from adverbs of time: as sempiternus, hesternus (from heri, old hesi). ātus, ītus, ūtus, denote provided with: as galeātus, aurītus, ver

sutus.

eus, Inus, āceus, icius, (esp. from participles), also icius, denote material or relation, as aureus, norīcius, cretāceus.

ārius, ōrius (adj.), denote belonging to ; ārium, ōrium (N.), place ; ārius (M.) often of trades.

ētum denotes place, as quercetum.

ōsus (from vant), ŏlens, ŏlentus (root ŏl) denote full of, or prone to, as fluctuosus, vinolentus; bundus, cundus, participial, but denoting continuance of quality: as iracundus.

b. Verbal.

ax, Ĭdus, ŭlus, vus (uus, īvus), denoting tendency (-ax often faulty or aggressive, īvus rather passive): as pugnax, cupidus, bibulus, protervus, nocuus, captivus.

flis, bilis, ius, generally passive: as fragilis, nobilis, eximius. mīnus, mnus, mna, (Gr. μɛvos), participles, but no longer significant as such: as terminus, alumnus, autumnus, lamina, ærumna, femina.

ndus, the gerund-ending, forming a few active (middle) adjectives: as secundus, rotundus (cf. volvendis mensibus).