use, the long and short vowels are sounded respectively as

NOTE. It is probable that y (also u in maximus, &c.) was similar to the French u; it is usually, however, sounded like i.

a. The final or unaccented open sound of the vowels is nearly as in the last syllable of comma, yesterday, pity, hollow, cuckoo.

b. In Diphthongs, each vowel has its proper sound: thus, ae has nearly the sound of ay, au of ow, oe of oy, ui of we.

c. Of consonants, c and g are always hard, s always sharp; j has the sound of y, v of w, and n before palatals of ng; the combination bs is like ps, ch like k, and ph like f.

NOTE. The sound of the vowels and diphthongs, as above given, has been generally adopted in this country. In regard to the consonants c, g, j, v, there is still considerable difference of usage.

2. Modern. Modern custom has generally allowed Latin to be pronounced in each country according to the rules of its own language. What is known as the English Method adopts the following:

a. The vowels and consonants have the same sound as in English. But there are no silent letters (except in scanning verse, by the usage called Elision); such words as dies, mare, audiere, pauperiēi, having each as many syllables as vowels or diphthongs.

b. By American custom, final a is pronounced in the Italian way, as in comma. But in the monosyllables a, da, sta, qua, some persons retain the English sound.

c. The diphthongs ae, oe, are pronounced like ee; au like aw; eu like ew; ei and ui like i in kite; es and (in plural words) os at the end of a word, as in the English disease, morose.

d. The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and j) before e, i, y, ae, oe, eu; ch is always hard, as in chasm.

3. QUANTITY.

1. Quantity is the relative time occupied in pronouncing a syllable, a long syllable being equal to two short ones.

NOTE. The distinction of Quantity was carefully observed by the ancients, but came to be almost wholly disregarded in later times except in the composition of Latin verse.

2. Some of the most general rules of quantity are the following:

a. A vowel before another vowel is short: as in via, nihil. b. A diphthong is long: as in aedes, foedus.

c. A syllable formed by contraction is long: as, mī (mihi); nīl (nihil); intrārat (intraverat); nēmo (ně hŏmo).

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NOTE. In many text-books and old editions, contraction is denoted by a circumflex: as, mî, intrârat.

d. A syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants, or a double consonant, is long: as in rectus, duxit. Sometimes the vowel itself is made long, as before ns in praesēns.

e. A syllable in which a short vowel is followed by a mute with 1 or r is common, that is, it may be long in verse: as, ălăcris.

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REMARK. Many final syllables, originally long, are always found short in classic Latin: for example, the stem-vowel a of the first declension.

NOTE.—The sign (~) denotes that a vowel is long; (~) that it is short; () that it is common.

For particular rules of Quantity, see § 78.

4. ACCENT.

1. The accent of Latin words never falls on the final syllable, but is confined to one of the two preceding.

2. The following are general rules of accent:

a. Words of two syllables are always accented on the first syllable: as, ĕ ́rant, they were; dĭ ́ēs, day.

b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on the Penult, if that is long: as, ămî ́cus, friend; if it is short or common, then on the Antepenult: as, do ́mìnus, ǎ'lacris.

NOTE.-The Penult is the last syllable but one; the Antepenult, the last but two.

c. When an Enclitic is joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short: as, děǎ'g 'que, ǎmāre've, tibi'ne, itǎ'que, and so, as distinguished from i'tăque, therefore.

NOTE.-The acute accent ( ́) is sometimes used to denote stress of voice; the grave (), to mark an adverb or conjunction; the circumflex (^), the ablative in a, the perfect in ere, or a contracted syllable.

5. INFLECTION.

1. Inflection is a change made in the form of a word, to show its grammatical relations.

a. Changes of inflection sometimes take place in the body of a word, but oftener in its termination: as, vox, a voice; võcis, of a voice; voco, I call; vocat, he calls; vocavit, he has called.

b. Terminations of inflection had originally an independent meaning, and correspond nearly to the use of prepositions or personal pronouns in English: thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; and in vocis, to the preposition of.

c. Changes of inflection in the body of a verb usually denote relations of time or manner, and correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs in English: thus, in frangit (root frag-), he breaks or is breaking, the form of the word indicates Present time or continued action; while in frēgit, he broke or has broken, it indicates Past time or Completed action.

2. The body of a word, to which the terminations are attached, is called the STEM.

a. The Stem contains the idea of the word without relations; but, in general, it cannot be used without some termination to express these. Thus the stem vōc- denotes voice; with -s added it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or agent of an action; with -is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice.

b. A still more primitive form, expressing the main idea less definitely, and common also to other words, either in the same or other languages, is called a RooT. For example, the root sta is found in the Sanskrit tišthâmi, Greek iornu, Latin sistere and stare, German stehen, and English stand.

Again, the root of the stem võc- is vŏc, which means not to call, or I call, or calling, but merely call; and cannot be used to mean any thing without terminations. With a it becomes vŏcā-, the stem of the present vocamus, we call; with avi- it is the stem of the perfect vŏcāvi, I called; with ato- it becomes the stem of the participle vocatus, called; with ātion- it becomes the stem of vocationis, of a calling. With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox, a voice (that by which we call); with ālis added it means belonging to a voice; with ula, a little voice.

NOTE. Thus, in inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very early time, long before Latin was a distinct language, were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become Words. The process by which they are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building.

c. The Stem is sometimes the same with the Root: as in duc-is, fer-t; but is more frequently formed from the root, either (1) by changing or lengthening its vowel, as in rēg-is, dūc-o; (2) by the addition or insertion of a consonant, as in tendo, pango; (3) by the addition of a terminal vowel, as in fugis, fuga; or (4) by derivation and composition, following the laws of development peculiar to the language.

d. The terminations of inflection are variously modified by combining with the final vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation.

NOTE. -A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open affix; one beginning with a consonant, a close affix. When a close affix is joined to a consonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic change, as rexi for reg-si, or a vowel appears, as reg-i-bus. But in most cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem, as in voca-mus, regi-mus.

3. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have inflections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case; and Verbs of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and person.

4. Those parts of speech which are not inflected are called PARTICLES: these are Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections, with Adverbs of time, place, and manner.

NOTE. The term Particles is sometimes limited to such words as num, -ne, an (interrogative), non, ne (negative), si (conditional), &c., which are used simply to indicate the form or construction of a sentence. Interjections are not properly to be classed among parts of speech, and differ little from inarticulate sounds. For convenience, a list is given of those in most common use, following the conjunctions (p. 95).

6. GENDER.

1. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.

a. Natural gender is distinction as to the sex of the object denoted: as, puer, boy; puella, girl; donum, gift.

b. Many masculine nouns have a corresponding feminine form: as, servus, serva, slave; cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix, conqueror.. Most designations of persons (as, nauta, sailor, miles, soldier), usually though not necessarily male, are masculine.

c. Grammatical gender is a like distinction where no sex exists in the object, and is shown by the form of the adjective joined with it: as, lapis magnus (M.), a great stone; manus mea (F.), my hand.

d. A few neuter nouns are used to designate persons as belonging to a class: as, mancipium tuum, your slave. Names of classes or bodies of persons may be of either gender: as, exercitus (M.), acies (F.), and agmen (N.), army; and the feminine operae, workmen, copiae, troops.

NOTE. What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the product of the imagination at a rude age, when language was in the course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a living creature, violent and strong, and so is masculine; a Month is a guide or divider of tasks, and so is masculine; and the fable of Atlas shows how similar living attributes were ascribed to Mountains, which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny; the Tree shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird her nest of eggs; and, to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun.

Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine; while, among northern nations, the Sun (perhaps for its comforting warmth) is feminine, and the Moon (the appointer of works and days) masculine. The rules of grammatical gender only repeat and extend these early workings of the fancy.

2. Names of Male beings, together with Rivers, Winds, and Mountains are masculine; names of Female beings, Cities, Countries, Plants, of many Animals (especially Birds), and of most abstract Qualities, are feminine.

NOTE. Most of the above may be recognized by their terminations, according to the rules of gender under the several declensions. a. Names of Rivers are masculine, except a few, chiefly in a. These are Albula, Allia, Druentia, Duria, Garumna, Matrona, Mosella; also Lethe and Styx. Many are variable.

NOTE. Names of Months are properly Adjectives, the masculine noun mensis being understood.

b. Names of Towns, Islands, and Trees in us are feminine; also, many names of Plants and Gems in us.

c. Indeclinable nouns, Terms or Phrases used as nouns, and words quoted merely for their forms, are neuter: as, nihil, nothing; gummi, gum; scire tuum, your knowing; triste vale, a sad farewell; hoc ipsum diu, this same word diu; hoc totum diserte dicere (De Or. ii. 10), this whole matter of eloquent speaking.