Imatges de pàgina
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PARTICLES.

41. ADVERBS.

What are called PARTICLES - that is, all Adverbs, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are real or extinct case-forms, or else compounds and phrases./

In classification Particles cannot always be distinguished; many prepositions and conjunctions being also reckoned among adverbs.

1. Derivation. The regular adverbs of manner are formed from Adjectives.

[For the comparison of these adverbs, see § 17, 4.]

a. Adjectives of the first and second declensions change the characteristic vowel of the stem into ē (originally an ablative in d): as, from carus, dear, carē, dearly.

So abunde, sæpe, prope, from adjectives not in use; as also prod (pro), re- (red-), se-, (sed-).

b. Adjectives of the third declension add -ter to the stem (most being treated as i-stems): as, fortiter, bravely; vigilanter, watchfully.

NOTE. This suffix is of uncertain origin, probably the same as in the Greek -Tepos, and in alter, uter; and, if so, these are neuter accusatives.

c. Some adverbs of the former class have both forms: as, dure, duriter; misere, miseriter. (So aliter from alius old stem ali-.)

d. The neuter accusative of adjectives and pronouns is often used as an adverb (strictly a cognate accusative, see § 52, 1, d) : as, multum, much; actutum, at once; facile, easily; non (= ne unum), not; iterum (comparative of is), again.

e. The ablative neuter or (less commonly) feminine is used adverbially as, falso, falsely; cito, quickly; rectā (viā), straight (straightway); contrā, on the other hand; quā (parte), where; qui, how; alioqui, otherwise.

f. A few adverbs are datives of adjectives and pronouns : as, quo, whither; adeo, so; ultra, beyond; citro, this side; retro, back (compar. of uls, cis, re); illoc (illo-ce, weakened to illuc), thither.

g. Some locative forms are used as adverbs: as, ibi, there; ubi, where, &c.; peregre, abroad; hic, here; interim, meanwhile; deinde, then; tamen, yet; and the compounds extrinsecus, outside; perendie, day after to-morrow.

h. Several feminine accusatives are used as adverbs: as, statim, on the spot; saltim, with a leap (generally in the form saltem, at least); palam, openly; perpěram, wholly otherwise (i.e., changed for the worse); tam, quam, nam (which may be neuters).

i. Several plural accusatives, neuter and feminine, are used adverbially, as frustra, vainly; alias, otherwise; foras, out of doors.

k. Some adverbs are of uncertain formation: (1) those in -tus (usually preceded by i): as, penitus, funditus, from the bottom (utterly); divinitus, providentially, — which are ablative in meaning; (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do (in quan-do, when; do-nec, until), dum, perhaps jam (from the same root with dies, diu, &c.).

7. Many phrases or clauses have grown into adverbs: as, antea, before; postmodo, a little after; denuo (de novo), again; prorsus, utterly; quotannis, every year; quamobrem, wherefore; obviam, in the way; pridem, before the day (i.e., before this time); forsan, a chance whether; forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps; scilicet (scire licet), to be sure.

(For Numeral Adverbs, see § 18, 3.)

2. Classification. Adverbs, other than those directly formed from adjectives, are classified as follows:—

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nusquam, nowhere; ultro, beyond (or freely); citro, to this side; intro, inwardly; porro, further on.

quorsum (quo versum), to what end? horsum, this way; prorsum, forward (prorsus, utterly); introrsum, inwardly; retrorsum, backward; sursum, upward; deorsum, downward; seorsum, apart; aliorsum, another way.

b. Adverbs of Time.

quando? when? cum (quom, quum), when (relat.).
nunc, now; tunc (tum), then; mox, presently; jam, already.
primum (primo), first; deinde (postea), next after; postremum,
(postremo), finally.

umquam (unquam), ever; numquam, never; semper, always.
aliquando, some time, at length; quandoque (quandocumque),
whenever.

quotiens (quoties), how often; totiens, aliquotiens.

quotidie, every day; in dies, from day to day.

nondum, not yet; necdum, nor yet; vixdum, scarce yet; quam primum, as soon as possible.

c. Adverbs of Degree or Cause.

quam, how, as; tam, so; quamvis, however much.
cur, quare, why; quod, quia, because; eo, therefore.
ita, sic, so; ut (uti), as, how; utut, utcumque, however..
quamquam (quanquam), although; etiam, quoque, even, also.

d. Interrogative Particles.

an, -ne, anne, utrum, num, whether.

nonne, whether not; numquid, ecquid, whether at all; (ecquid intellegis? have you any idea?)

utrum (num), -ne, whether; ... an (annon, necne), or.

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NOTE. The word whether is not now used in English, except in Indirect Questions (See § 71).

e. Negative Particles.

non, not in simple denial; haud (hau, haut), or minime, not
in contradiction; ne, not in prohibition.

ne, lest; neque, nec, nor; ne quidem, not even.
non modo. verum (sed) etiam, not only . . . but also.
non modo ... sed ne .. quidem, not only NOT... but not

even.

si minus, if not; quo minus, so as not.

quin (relat.), but that; (interrog.) why not? who (what) not?
ne (in compos.), not: as, nescio, I know not; nego (ne-aio),
I say no (aio, I say yes); nēmo (ne homo), no one; ne
quis, lest any one.

REMARK.-Two negatives are equivalent to an affirmative: as, nemo non audiet, every one will hear.

This is especially frequent with compounds of non: as, nonnullus (= aliquis), some; nonnihil (= aliquid), something; nonnemo (= aliquot), sundry persons; nonnumquam (= aliquotiens), sometimes; necnon, also.

On the other hand, nemo non, nulli non, every one; nihil non, every thing; numquam non, always, &c.

3. Signification. The following adverbs require special explanation:

a. Etiam, also, is stronger than quoque, and usually precedes the emphatic word, while quoque follows it: as,

terret etiam nos, ac minatur (Rosc. Am. 40), us also he terrifies and threatens.

hoc quoque maleficium (id.), this crime too.

b. Nunc, now, means definitely the present time; jam, already, - or, with the future, presently; with negatives, no longer, has reference to the past. Tunc, then, is a strengthened form of tum, which is correlative with cum, when: as,

nunc jam confiteris, now at length you confess.

non est jam lenitati locus, there is no longer room for mercy.

quod jam erat institutum, which had come to be a practice.

nunc quidem deleta est, tunc florebat (Læl. 4), now ('tis true) she [Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory.

tum cum regnabat, at the time he reigned.

c. Certō means certainly; certe (usually), at any rate: as, certo scio, I know for a certainty. aut jam urgentis aut certe adventantis senectutis (C. M. 1.), of old age, which is already pressing or at least approaching.

d. Primum, first (first in order, or for the first time), is usually followed by deinde, tum,... denique; primo, at first, by postea (post) or mox, afterwards. (The adjective form is preferred in such phrases as nos primi, we first, &c.) Thus, primum de genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, tum de imperatore deligendo (Manil. 2), first of the kind of war, next of its greatness, then of the choice of commander.

e. Quidem, indeed, is emphatic, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, &c. (see above nunc quidem, &c.). With ne quidem, not even or not

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either, the emphatic word must stand between: as,

senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 19), an old man has NOT EVEN any thing to hope for.

ne Jugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), NOR was Jugurtha quiet EITHER.

42. PREPOSITIONS.

1. Prepositions are not originally distinguished from adverbs in form or meaning. They are, however, distinguished in their use, requiring to be followed by some special case of a noun or pronoun.

a. The following Prepositions require the accusative:

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c. The following may take either case, but usually with a difference in meaning

in, into, in; sub, under; subter, beneath; super, above. In and sub, when followed by the Accusative, signify motion to, when by the Ablative, rest in, a place.

(For the Syntax of Prepositions, see § 56.)

2. The meaning and use of these prepositions may be seen in the following examples, which include many adverbial phrases:

A, ab, away from (opposite of ad): ab eo loco, from that place; a nobis, from our house; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city; secundus a rege, next the king; liberare ab, to set free from; occisus ab hoste (periit ab hoste), slain by an enemy; a fronte, in front; ab hac parte, on this side; a primo, at first; ab re, afterwards; dolet ab animo, he grieves at heart; ab initio ordiri, to begin at the beginning; stat ab amicis, he stands by his friends; ab hac contione, after this speech; ab re

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