22. CORRELATIVES.

Many adjectives, pronouns, and adverbs are found in several corresponding forms, as, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, and indefinite. These are called CORRELATIVES. forms are seen in the following Table:·

DEMONSTR.

is, that

tantus, so great quantus

Their

RELAT.

INTERROG.

INDEF. REL.

INDEF.

qui

talis, such

qualis

qualis ?

ibi, there

ubiŭbi alicubi

a. The forms tot, quot, aliquot, totidem (originally toti), are indeclinable, and may take any gender, number, or case: as, per tot annos, tot præliis, tot imperatores (Cic.), so many commanders, for so many years, in so many battles.

b. The correlative of the second member is often to be rendered simply as: thus,

tantum argenti quantum aeris, as much silver as copper.

c. A frequent form of correlative is found in the ablatives quo or quanto, by how much; eo or tanto, by so much, used with comparatives (rendered in English the . . the): as,

quo magis conatur, eo minus discit, the more he tries the less he learns.

d. Certain adverbs and conjunctions are often used correlatively: as,

as.

qui, the same... as.

and; not only . . . but also.

NOTE. For the reciprocal use of alius and alter, see Syntax (§ 47, 9).

VERBS.

23. STRUCTURE.

1. The forms of a Latin verb are the following:

a. VOICES: Active and Passive.

b. Moods: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, Infinitive. c. PARTICIPLES: Active, Present and Future.

Passive, Perfect and Gerundive.

d. VERBAL NOUNS: Gerund and Supine.

e. TENSES: Present, Imperfect, Future; Perfect, Pluperfect, Future-Perfect.

f. There are also separate terminations of inflection for each of the three Persons, Singular and Plural (§ 28).

NOTE.-The Infinitives, Participles, Gerund, and Supine are not strictly parts of the verb, as having no personal terminations, but having the form and (in general) the construction of nouns. They were, however, regarded and used as verbal forms by the Romans.

2. Special forms for the following tenses are wanting in certain parts of the verb:

a. In the Subjunctive mood, the future and future-perfect.

NOTE. These are wanting, because the original meaning and most of the uses of this mood are future. In some cases, the future participle with the corresponding tense of esse is used.

b. In the Passive voice, the perfect, pluperfect, and future-perfect, which are supplied by corresponding tenses of esse, to be, with the Perfect Participle.

c. In the Imperative mood only two tenses are found, -present and future. In the Infinitive only the present, perfect, and future.

3. The Active and Passive voices are equivalent to the corresponding English forms, except that the tenses of the passive are used with more exactness. Thus vocatur means, he is [being] called, i.e., some one is now calling him; vocātus est, he is called, i.e., the action is now over.

NOTE.The passive voice often has a reflexive meaning, as, induitur vestem, he puts on his clothes; and many verbs are active in meaning though passive in form. (See § 35, "Deponents.")

24. MOODS.

1. The Indicative is used for direct assertion or interrogation.

2. The Subjunctive is used chiefly in commands, conditions, and dependent clauses.

NOTE. The Latin Subjunctive is usually translated, in grammars, by the English potential forms, muy, might, could, would, &c., to distinguish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the subjunctive is used in many cases where we use the indicative; and we use the potential in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb. Thus I may write (except when it follows ut, in order that) is not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi scribere; I can write is possum scribere; I would write is scribam, scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem); I should write, if, &c., scriberem si or (implying duty) oportet me scribere. A few examples of the use of the subjunctive may be seen in the following: ne cunctemur, let us not linger. quid morer, why should I delay?

eamus,

let us go.

si tardior sim iratus sit, if I should be too late he would be angry. adsum ut videam, I am here to see [that I may see].

imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write.

nescio quid scribam, I know not what to write.

licet eas, you may go; cave cadas, don't fall.

vereor ne eat, I fear he will go (vereor ut, I fear he will not).

sunt qui putent, there are some who think.

si ita esset non manerem, if it were so I would not stay.
quæ cum dixisset abiit, when he had said this he went away.

3. The Imperative is used for exhortation or command; but its place is often supplied by the Subjunctive.

4. The Infinitive is used as an indeclinable noun, as the subject or object of another verb; but often takes the place of one of the other moods.

NOTE.

For the Syntax of the Moods, see § 57.

25. PARTICIPLES.

1. The Present participle has the same meaning as the English participle in -ing: as, vocans, calling; regentes, those ruling. (For its inflection, see § 16, 2.)

2. The Future participle is rarely used, except with tenses of esse, to be (see § 40), or to express purpose: as, urbs est casura, the city is about to fall; venit auditurus, he came to hear.

3. The Perfect participle is used to form certain tenses of the passive, and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, vocatus est, he was (has been) called; tectus, sheltered; acceptus, acceptable.

NOTE.There is no perfect active or present passive participle in Latin. The perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally used in an active sense, as secutus, having followed. In other cases some different construction is used: as, cum venisset, having come (when he had come); equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cavalry (the cavalry having been sent forward); dum verberatur, while being struck (=TUTTÓμEVOS).

For the Syntax of these participles, see § 72.

4. The Gerundive (sometimes called the future passive participle) has, with tenses of esse, the meaning ought or must (see § 40): as, audiendus est, he must be heard. But, in the oblique cases, it is oftener to be translated as if it were an active participle, and governed the word it agrees with: as, ad petendam pacem, to seek peace (§ 73).

26. GERUND AND SUPINE.

1. The Gerund is the neuter singular of the Gerundive. It is a verbal noun, corresponding to the English participial noun in ing as, loquendi causa, for the sake of speaking.

2. The Supines are the accusative and ablative (or dative) of a verbal noun of the fourth declension (§ 12, 4, a). They are generally translated by the English Infinitive of purpose: as, venit spectatum, he came to see; mirabile dictu, wonderful to tell.

NOTE.

- The Supine in tum is the regular Infinitive in Sanskrit.

27. TENSES.

1. The tenses of a Latin verb are of two classes: (1) those denoting incomplete action, the Present, Imperfect, and Future; (2) those denoting completed action, the Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect.

Those of the former class, together with the Perfect, are also used to denote indefinite action.

2. The Present, Future, Pluperfect, and Future-Perfect have the same meaning as the corresponding tenses in English, but are distinguished more accurately in their use: as,

diu aegrōto, I have long been [and still am] sick.

cum venero scribam, when I come [shall have come] I will write.

3. The Perfect and Imperfect are both used to denote past time, the former usually to tell a simple fact; the latter, a continued action, or a condition of things. The Imperfect is variously rendered in English: as,

dicebat, he said, he was saying, or he used to say; saepe dicebat, he would often say; dictitabat, he kept saying.

The Perfect has two separate uses, distinguished as definite and historical, corresponding to the English perfect (compound) and preterite (imperfect): as,

vocavit, he has called (definite), or he called (historical).

NOTE. In Latin, and in the languages derived from Latin (as Italian and French), there are two past tenses, the Perfect or Preterite (aorist), which merely states that the fact took place; and the Imperfect, which is used for description, or to indicate that the action was in progress. In the Northern languages (Germanic or Gothic, including English), the same tense serves for both: as,

longius prosequi vetuit, quod loci naturam ignorabat, he forbade to follow farther, because he was ignorant of the nature of the ground (B. G. v. 9.).

4. The tenses of completed action are supplied in the Passive voice by adding the corresponding tenses of incomplete action of esse to the Perfect Participle: as, occisus est, he was slain, or, he has been slain

5. The tenses of a Latin verb are formed upon three dif ferent stems, called the present, the perfect, and the supine

stems.

a. The tenses of incomplete action, both active and passive, are formed upon the Present stem.

b. The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed upon the Perfect stem.

c. The perfect participle, which is used in the tenses of completed action in the passive voice, is formed upon the Supine

stem.