26. The ABLATIVE is used of cause, manner, means, instrument, quality, specification, and price (54).

27. The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is in the ablative with ab (54, 4).

28. Words denoting separation and plenty or want

also opus

and usus signifying need - govern the ablative (54, 1). 29. Participles denoting birth or origin govern the ablative (54, 2, α). 30. The adjectives dignus, indignus, — with many verbals, as contentus, fretus, lætus, præditus,-govern the ablative (54, 3, a; 10, a).

31. The deponents utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vescor, and their compounds, govern the ablative (54, 6, d).

32. Comparatives may take the ablative instead of quam, than. 33. Degree of Difference is put in the ablative (54, 6, e). 34. Time at or within which is put in the ablative (55, 1). 35. Ablative Absolute. A Subject and Predicate in the ablative are used to define the time or circumstances of an action. 36. The name of the Town where is in form like the Genitive of singular names in us, a, um, otherwise Dative or Ablative; that whither in the Accusative, and whence in the Ablative. So of domus, rus (also humi, belli, militia), and many names of Islands. 37. With other words (including names of Countries) Prepositions are used to denote where, whither, or whence.

38. The Infinitive is used like a neuter noun, as the Subject or Object, or to complete the action of a verb (57, 8, a).

39. The Infinitive, with subject-accusative, is regularly used after words of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (57, 8, e). 40. Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for tenses of the indicative in narration (57, 8, h).

41. The Gerund, governing the case of its verb, or the Gerundive in agreement with a noun, has the construction of a verbal noun. 42. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion; the Supine in u after adjectives.

43. The Subjunctive is used independently to denote a wish, command, or concession (57, 2).

44. Relatives or Conjunctions implying purpose or result, — also of relative time or characteristic, -require the Subjunctive. 45. Indirect Questions take a verb in the subjunctive (67, 2). 46. The Subjunctive present and perfect are used in future conditions; the imperfect and pluperfect in those contrary to fact. 47. Dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse, or in a subjunctive construction, take the subjunctive.

48. In the sequence of Tenses, primary tenses are followed by primary, and secondary by secondary (58, 10).

76. ARRANGEMENT.

In Latin the words do not follow the order of construction, yet they have a regular arrangement. This, however, is constantly modified for emphasis, harmony, and clearness.

1. Normal Order. Regularly the subject stands first, followed by its modifiers; the verb last, preceded by the words which depend upon it: as,

civis Romanus sum (not sum Romanus civis).

voluptates blandissimæ dominæ majores partes animi a virtute detorquent (Off. ii. 10).

a. A predicate nominative, as the most important part of the predicate, is often placed after the copula: as,

qui Athenis est mortuus (id. 24).

hæc ad judicandum sunt facillima (id. iii. 6).

b. The forms of esse meaning there is, &c., often come first in the sentence: as,

sunt quædam officia quæ aliis magis quam aliis debeantur (Off. i. 18).

c. A numeral adjective, or one essential to the meaning of the phrase, goes before its noun; one simply descriptive commonly follows: as,

omnes homines decet.

est viri magni rebus agitatis punire sontes (Off. i. 24). omnis actio vacare debet temeritate et neglegentiâ (id. 29). cum aliquâ perturbatione (id. i. 38).

Lælius et sapiens et amicitiæ gloriâ excellens (Læl. 1).

d. A Demonstrative pronoun precedes the noun, Relatives stand first in their sentence or clause, Adverbs stand directly before the word they qualify.

2. Emphasis. Inversion of the above order gives emphasis.

a. Particularly the verb comes first and the subject last. This makes either or both emphatic: as,

dicebat idem C. Curio (Off. ii. 17).

b. Any word closely connected with the preceding sentence comes first, and with the following last: as,

ac duabus iis personis quas supra dixi tertia adjungitur (Off. i. 32).

objecit [Cato] ut probrum M. Nobiliori quod is in provinciam poëtas duxisset; duxerat autem consul ille in Etoliam ut scimus Ennium (Tusc. i. 2).

maxime perturbantur officia in amicitiis; quibus et non tribuere quod recte possis, et tribuere quod non sit æquum, contra officium est (Off. iii. 10).

c. A word or phrase inserted between the parts of compound tenses becomes emphatic: as,

ille reprehensus a multis est (N. D. ii. 38).

d. A modifier of a noun and adjective or participle is often placed between them. So in the gerundive construction: as, de communi hominum memoriâ (Tusc. i. 24).

de uno imperatore contra prædones constituendo (Manil. 17). e. Sometimes a noun and its attribute are separated as far as possible, so as to include less important words: as,

objurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariæ (Off. i. 38).

f. One pair of ideas is set off against another, either in the same order or in exactly the opposite order. The latter, which is very common, is called chiasmus from the Greek X on account of the cross arrangement. Thus,

rerum copia verborum copiam gignit (De Or. iii. 3, 31). pro vitâ hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur (B. G. vi. 16). leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur bonos (Fin. iii. 3).

non igitur utilitatem amicitia, sed utilitas amicitiam consecuta est (Læl. 14). [Here the arrangement of cases only is chiastic, that of ideas is regular.]

g. Different forms of the same word are often placed together, also words from the same root.

h. A favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other. This is often joined with chiasmus: as,

et superjecto pavidæ natârunt æquore damæ (H. Od. i. 2, 11). arma nondum expiatis uncta cruoribus (id. ii. 1, 5).

3. Special Rules.

a. Prepositions regularly precede their nouns (except tenus and versus), but they are often placed between a noun and adjective: as,

quem ad modum; quam ob rem; magno cum metu; omnibus cum copiis; nulla in re.

b. Itaque regularly comes first in its sentence, or clause; enim, autem, vero, quoque, never first, but usually second, sometimes third if the second word is emphatic; quidem never first, but after the emphatic word: ne...quidem include the emphatic word or words.

c. Inquam, inquit, &c., credo, opinor, quaeso, used parenthetically, always follow one or more words.

d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects; but if it belongs to no one word, it begins the sentence.

4. Structure. Latin expresses the relation of words to each other by inflection, rather than by position, like modern languages. Hence its structure not only admits of great variety in the arrangement of words, but is especially favorable to that form of sentence which is called a Period. In a period, the sense is expressed by the sentence as a whole, and is held in suspense till the delivery of the last word, which usually expresses the main action or motive.

An English sentence does not often admit this form of structure. It was imitated, sometimes with great skill and beauty, by many of the early writers of English prose; but its effect is better seen in poetry, in such a passage as the following: :

"High on a throne of royal state, which far
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind,
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold,
Satan exalted sat."

Paradise Lost, Book II. 1-5.

PART THIRD.

RULES OF VERSE (PROSODY).

77. RHYTHM.

1. The Poetry of the ancients was not composed, like modern poetry, according to accent and rhyme; but was measured, like music, by the length of the syllables, or vowel sounds. The measured flow of verse is called Rhythm.

2. Each syllable is considered as either long or short,in Quantity or length (not in Quality or sound, as we speak of the long or short vowel-sounds in English); a long syllable being reckoned in length equal to two short ones (see p. 3). REMARK.—The quantity of radical or stem-syllables as of short a in păter or of long a in mater can be learned only by observation or practice, unless determined by the general rules of Quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary rules for the purposes of memory; the syllables being long or short because the ancients pronounced them so. In those cases which cannot be conveniently grouped, the quantity is shown by the actual practice of the ancients, and is said to be determined by the authority of the Poets, -the principal means we have of learning it. In some inscriptions, however, the long vowels are distinguished in various ways, by marks over the letters, or by doubling.

Owing to the practice of Roman poets of borrowing very largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek and not the Latin laws of quantity. Where these vary in any important point, they will be noticed in the rules given below.

78. RULES OF QUANTITY.

1. General Rules.

a. A vowel before another vowel is short: as, via, trăho. REMARK. The aspirate h, as in the example above, is not reckoned as a Consonant in the rules of prosody (See § 1, 1, Note).