REMARK.The gerundive in this construction is passive in meaning. But in early Latin, and occasionally elsewhere, it is used impersonally, governing the accusative; and it is regularly so used with utor, fruor, &c., governing the ablative (sometimes called the nominative of the gerund): as,

via quam nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. M. 2), the way we

have to enter.

agitandumst vigilias (Trin. 869), I have got to stand guard. [Compare Greek verbal in -Téos, G. 281.]

c. It is also used to denote purpose after verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, have, receive, undertake, demand: as, redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 21), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column [the regular construction with this class of verbs].

ædem Castoris habuit tuendam (Verr. ii. 50), he had the temple of Castor to take care of.

naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat (id. vi. 56), he took care that the ships and cargoes should be kept. For the Gerundive after verbs of decreeing, see § 70, 3, d. For the ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE, see § 54, 10, b.

1. Gerund. The Gerund is a verbal noun, retaining the government of the verb, and modified by adverbs, but in grammatical construction following the same rules as nouns.

REMARK. The use of the Gerund, in the oblique cases, corresponds to the use of the Infinitive as Subject (§ 57, 8, a), its nominative form being found only in the impersonal use of the participle in dus: as,

ars bene disserendi et vera ac falsa dijudicandi (De Or. ii. 38), the art of discoursing well, and distinguishing the true and false. [Here the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitive disserere and dijudicare.]

juveni parandum, seni utendum est (Sen. Ep. 36), it is for the young to get, for the old to enjoy (compare § 51, 3, 4).

2. Gerundive. When the gerund would have an object in the accusative, the Gerundive is generally used instead, agreeing with the noun, and in the case which the gerund would have had: as,

paratiores ad omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all dangers. [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed by ad: the construction with the gerund would be, ad subeundum, &c.; ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing the accusative pericula.]

exercendæ memoriæ gratiâ (Off. i. 15), for the sake of training the memory. [Here the gerund construction would be, exercendi memoriam.]

REMARK.- The verbs utor, fruor, &c. (§ 54, 6, d), are treated like verbs governing the Accusative, as they do in early Latin: as,

expetuntur divitiæ ad perfruendas voluptates (Off. i. 8), riches are sought for the enjoyment of pleasure.

NOTE.The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The Participle in dus seems to have had a present passive force as in secundus (from sequor), rotundus, volvendā dies (Virg.), flammandi (Tac.), from which the idea of necessity was developed through that of futurity, as in the development of the subjunctive. Consilium urbis delenda would thus have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in process of destruction], then about to be destroyed, then to be destroyed, then a plan of destroying the city, the two words becoming fused together as in ab urbe condita. The gerund is simply an impersonal use of the participle, in its original present sense, retaining the case of its verb, as in agitandum est vigilias; quid opus est facto?

3. Construction. The Gerund (if of transitive verbs, with a noun in government) and the Gerundive (with a noun in agreement) are used, in the oblique cases, in the constructions of nouns, as follows::

a. Genitive. The Genitive is used after nouns or adjectives in the constructions of the objective genitive (§ 50, 3); more rarely in the predicate after esse, or as a genitive of quality: as, neque consilii habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms [objective genitive after spatio].

ne conservandæ quidem patriæ causâ (Off. i. 45), not even in order to save the country.

vivendi finis est optimus (Cat. M. 20), it is the best end of life. non tam commutandarum rerum quam evertendarum cupidos (id. ii. 1), desirous not so much of changing as of destroying the state.

quæ res evertendæ reipublicæ solent esse (Verr. iii. 53), which things generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. cognoscendæ antiquitatis (Ann. ii. 59), to study old times. [Here gratiâ is, by a rare construction, omitted.]

The genitive of the Gerund is, in a few cases, used (like a noun) with the genitive of an object agreeing neither in gender nor number: as,

ejus videndi cupidus (Ter. Hec.), eager to see her.

reiciendi trium judicum potestas (Inv. ii. 2), the power of challenging three jurors,

REMARK.-In the genitive, the construction of the gerund and gerundive are about equally common.

b. Dative. The Dative is used after the adjectives (and rarely nouns) which are followed by the dative of nouns (§ 51, 6); also, in a few expressions after verbs: as,

præesse agro colendo (Rosc. Am. 18), to take charge of tillage. esse solvendo, to be able to pay.

genus armorum aptum tegendis corporibus (Liv. xxxii. 10), a sort of armor suited to the defence of the body.

reliqua tempora demetiendis fructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt (Cat. M. 19), the other seasons are fitted to reap and gather in the harvest.

diem præstituit operi faciendo (Verr. ii. 56), he appointed a day for doing the work.

It is also used in certain phrases belonging to the civil law, after nouns meaning officers, offices, elections, &c.: as,

comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 17), elections for nominating consuls.

triumvirum coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for leading out colonies.

c. Accusative. The Accusative is used after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (rarely in and ante); most frequently after ad, denoting purpose (compare § 72, 4): as,

vivis non ad deponendam sed ad confirmandam audaciam (Cat. i. 2), you live, not to put off, but to confirm your daring. inter agendum (Ecl. ix. 24), while driving.

me vocas ad scribendum (Or. 10), you call me to write.

d. Ablative. The Ablative is used to express means or instrument; also manner (often by later writers, in a sense equivalent to the present participle); after comparatives; and after the prepositions ab, de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum: as, multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises.

his ipsis legendis (Cat. M. 7), by reading these very things. nullum officium referendâ gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 15), no duty is more important than gratitude.

in re gerendâ versari (Cat. M. 6), to be employed in affairs. Latine loquendo cuivis par (Brut. 34), equal to any man in speaking Latin.

nullis virtutis præceptis tradendis (Off. i. 2), without giving any precepts of virtue.

obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude.

REMARK. The gerund is occasionally found in apposition with

a noun: as,

ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Livy, xxi. 3), for the most widely different things obeying and commanding.

NOTE. From the ablative of manner comes the Italian and Spanish form of the participle, the true participle form becoming an adjective.

74. SUPINE.

The Supine is a verbal noun, having no distinction of tense or person, and is limited to two uses.

NOTE.-The Supine is a verbal abstract of the fourth declension. The form in um is the accusative of the end of motion. The form in u is probably dative of purpose, though possibly ablative.

1. Former Supine. The Supine in um is used after verbs of motion to express the purpose of the motion; it governs the case of its verb, and is modified by adverbs: as, quid est, imusne sessum? etsi admonitum venimus te, non flagitatum (De Or. iii. 5), how now, shall we be seated? though we have come to remind not to entreat you.

nuptum collocâsse (B. G. i. 18), to establish in marriage. venerunt questum injurias (Liv. iii. 25), they came to complain of wrongs.

REMARK.-The supine in um is used especially after eo; and with the passive infinitive iri forms the future infinitive passive (see § 55, 3, b, Rem.): as,

fuêre cives qui rempublicam perditum irent (Sall. C. 36), there were citizens who went about to ruin the republic.

non Graiis servitum matribus ibo (Æn. ii. 786), I shall not go in slavery to the Grecian dames.

si scîsset se trucidatum iri (Div. ii. 9), if he [Pompey] had known that he was going to be murdered.

2. Latter Supine. The Supine in u is used only after a few adjectives, and the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, to denote that in respect to which the quality is asserted: as,

O rem non modo visu fœdam, sed etiam auditu (Phil. ii. 25), a thing not only shocking to see, but even to hear of! quærunt quid optimum factu sit (Verr. ii. 27), they ask what is best to do.

humanum factu aut inceptu (Andr. 236), a human thing to do or undertake.

si hoc fas est dictu (Tusc. v. 13), if this is lawful to say.

So rarely with verbs: as,

pudet dictu (Agric. 32), it is shame to tell.

REMARK. -The supine in u is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difficilis, jucundus, the construction of ad with the gerund is more common. The Infinitive is often used in the same signification, by the poets, with all these adjectives.

75. GENERAL RULES OF SYNTAX.

1. Nouns meaning the same thing agree in case (§ 46).

2. Adjectives agree with Nouns in gender, number, and case (47). 3. Possessive Adjectives are used for the genitive, and in any case may have a genitive in agreement (47, 5).

with

4. Relatives agree with their antecedents in gender and number; their case depending on the construction of their clause (48). 5. A Verb agrees with its Subject in number and person (49). 6. Two or more singular subjects—also collective nouns, quisque and uterque-may take a plural verb (49, 1). 7. The Subject of a finite verb is in the NOMINATIVE (49, 2). 8. A Noun used to limit or define another is in the GENITIVE (50). 9. The Genitive is used to denote the author, owner, source, and (with adjectives) measure or quality (50, 1).

10. Words denoting a part are followed by the genitive of the whole to which the part belongs (50, 2).

11. Certain adjectives of Quantity are used in the genitive to express indefinite Value (50, 1, i).

12. Many words of memory and feeling, knowledge or ignorance, fulness and want, also verbals and participles used as adjectives, govern the genitive (50, 3).

13. Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the genitive of the charge or penalty (50, 4, b).

14. The DATIVE is the case of the Indirect Object (51).

15. Words of likeness, fitness, nearness, service, or help are followed by the dative (51, 5, 6).

16. Verbs meaning to favor, help, please, serve, trust, and their contraries, also to believe, persuade, command, obey, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, govern the dative (51, 2, α). 17. The Dative is used after esse, to be, to denote the Owner (51, 3). 18. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob,

post, præ, pro, sub, super, govern the dative (51, 2, d). 19. Verbs of giving, telling, sending, and the like and sometimes of comparing and taking away-govern the accusative and dative (51, 1).

20. The dative is used to denote the purpose or end; often with another dative of the person or thing affected (51, 5).

21. The ACCUSATIVE is the case of the Direct Object (52). 22. The subject of the Infinitive mood is in the accusative (52, 4, b). 23. Time how long and Distance how far are in the accusative. 24. The accusative is used adverbially, or for specification (52, 3). 25. Verbs of naming, choosing, asking, and teaching govern two accusatives (52, 2).