nihil est aliud [hominem] bene et beate vivere, nisi honeste et recte vivere (Parad. i. 6), to live well and happily, is nothing else than to live honorably and rightly.

invidere non cadit in sapientem (Tusc. iii. 10), envy does not belong to a wise man.

est humanitatis vestræ... prohibere (Man. 7), it is for your humanity to hold safe, &c.

nam istuc ipsum non esse cum fueris miserrimum puto (Tusc. i. 6), for I think this very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been.

In this use, the infinitive is found chiefly with esse and impersonal verbs, rarely with others.

-

b. The infinitive is used with many Impersonal verbs and expressions, partly as subject and partly as complement (see Note below): as,

te abundare oportet præceptis (Off. i. 1), you must abound in maxims.

id primum in poetis cerni licet (De Or. iii. 7), this may be seen first in poets.

reperiebat quid dici opus esset (Brut. 59), he found what needed to be said.

hæc præscripta servantem licet magnifice vivere (Off. i. 26), one who observes these precepts may live nobly.

proponis quam sit turpe me adesse (Att. ix. 2), you make it clear how base it is for me to be present.

c. Complementary Infinitive. The infinitive, without a subject, is used with verbs which require another action of the same subject to complete their meaning. Such are verbs denoting to be able, dare, undertake, remember, forget, be accustomed, begin, continue, cease, hesitate, learn, know how, fear, and the like: as, hoc queo dicere (Cat. M. 10), this I can say. mitto quærere (Rosc. Am ), I omit to ask. [own presence. vereor laudare præsentem (N. D. i. 21), I fear to praise in one's oro ut matures venire (Att. iv. 1), pray make haste to come.

NOTE. The mark of this construction is that no Subject of these infinitives is admissible or conceivable; though the same verbs, in other senses, may take an infinitive with a subject.

d. The infinitive is used optionally with many verbs which also take a subjunctive clause (§ 70): such are those signifying willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, command, prohibition, effort, and the like. The subject is usually, though not always, omitted, when it is the same as that of the principal verb: as,

quos tueri debent deserunt (Off. i. 9), they forsake those whom they should protect.

Atticos volo imitari (Brut. 82), I wish to imitate the Attics.

student excellere (Off. i. 32), they aim to excel.

istum exheredare in animo habebat (Rosc. Am. 18), he had it in mind to deprive him of the inheritance.

cupio me esse clementem [= cupio esse clemens] (Cat. i. 2), I desire to be merciful.

Some of these verbs—jubeo and veto regularly—may take the infinitive with another subject: as,

signa inferri jubet (Liv. xlii. 59), he orders the standards to be borne forward.

NOTE. This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding, shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses is the infinitive strictly Subject or Object; but its meaning is developed from the original one of purpose. Hence the distinction between the uses is not always clearly marked.

e. With Subject Accusative. The infinitive, with subject accusative, is regularly used after words of knowing, thinking, telling, and the like (verba sentiendi et declarandi, § 67, 1):

as,

dicit montem ab hostibus teneri (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held by the enemy.

NOTE.-The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb except number and person (see § 67).

REMARK. -1. With verbs which govern the dative, the subject of the action may be in the dative. With licet regularly, and with others rarely, the predicate may also be in the dative: as,

nemini certare cum eo necesse fuit (Liv. xxi. 11), there was need for none to strive with him.

non libet mihi deplorare vitam (Cat. M. 23), I have no desire to bewail life.

[gent. mihi negligenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), I must not be neglinon est stantibus omnibus necesse dicere (Marc. 11), it is not necessary for all to speak standing.

expedit bonas esse vobis (Ter. Heaut. ii. 4), it is for your interest to be good.

So with the dativus commodi: as,

quid est tam secundum naturam quam senibus emori (Cat. M. 19), what is so according to nature as for old men to die? 2. When the subject of the infinitive is not expressed, a predicate (except after impersonals) takes the case of the subject: as, si esset in iis fides in quibus summa esse debebat (Fam. i. 1), if there were faith in those in whom it ought to be greatest. So, by a Greek idiom, even in Indirect Discourse: as,

vir bonus et sapiens ait esse paratus (Hor. Ep. i. 7), a good and wise man says he is prepared, &c.

sensit medios delapsus in hostes (Æn. ii. 377), he found himself fallen amongst the foe.

f. In a few cases, the infinitive retains its original meaning of purpose: viz.

1. With habeo, do, ministro, in isolated passages: as, tantum habeo polliceri (Fam. i. 5), so much I have to promise. 2. After the adjectives paratus, suetus, and their compounds. id quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 2), which they are ready to do. 3. In poetry and later writers with any verb or adjective: as, durus componere versus (Hor. Sat. i. 4), harsh in composing furit te reperire (Hor. Od. i. 15), he rages to find thee. [verse. cantari dignus (Ecl. v. 54), worthy to be sung.

REMARK. Rarely, in poetry, the infinitive is used to denote result.

g. The infinitive, with subject-accusative, may be used in Exclamations (compare § 52, 4): as,

mene incepto desistere victam (Æn. i. 37), what! I desist beaten from my purpose?

te in tantas ærumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. 1), alas! that you should fall into such grief for me.

NOTE. This construction is elliptical: that is, the thought is quoted in Indirect Discourse, though no verb of Saying, &c., appears, or perhaps is thought of (compare the French dire que).

h. Historical Infinitive. The Infinitive is often used for the tenses of the Indicative in narration, and takes a subject in the nominative: as,

tum Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sall. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised abolition of debts [clean ledgers].

ego instare ut mihi responderet (Verr. ii. 77), I pressed him to

answer.

This usage is most frequent where many verbs are crowded together in rapid narrative: as,

pars cedere, alii insequi; neque signa neque ordines servare; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque cives permixti; nihil consilio neque imperio agi; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), a part give way, others press on; they hold neither to standards nor ranks; where danger overtook, there each would stand and fight; weapons, missiles, horses, men, foe and friend, were mixed; nothing went by counsel or command; chance ruled all.

58. USE OF TENSES.

The TENSES are the Present, Imperfect, Future (of incomplete action), and the Perfect, Pluperfect, Future Perfect (of completed action).

1. Tenses of the Indicative. The tenses of the Indicative denote absolute time; that is, present, past, or future, in reference to the Speaker.

2. Present. The Present denotes an action or state, as now existing, as incomplete, or as indefinite without reference to time: as,

agitur salus sociorum (Manil. 2), the safety of our allies is at stake.

Senatus hæc intellegit, consul videt, hic tamen vivit (Cat. i. 1), the Senate knows this, the consul sees, yet this man lives. nihil est victoriâ dulcius (Verr. vi. 26), nothing is sweeter than victory.

tu actionem instituis, ille aciem instruit (Mur. 9), you arrange a case, he arrays an army.

a. The present, with expressions of duration of time, denotes an action begun in the past but continuing in the present: as,

patimur jam multos annos (Verr. vi. 48), we suffer now these many years.

anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 30), it is now eight years that this case has been in hand.

b. Conative Present. The present sometimes denotes an action not completed at all, but only attempted: as,

Quintus frater Tusculanum venditat (Att. i. 14), my brother Quintus is trying to sell the place at Tusculum.

(So the present Infinitive and Participle.)

c. The present, especially in colloquial language, is sometimes used for the future: as,

imusne sessum (De Or. iii. 5), shall we take a seat? ecquid me adjuvas? (Clu. 26), won't you give me a little help? in jus voco te. non eo. non is? (Pl. As. 480), I summon you to the court. I won't go. You won't?

si reus condemnatur, desinent homines dicere his judiciis pecuniam plurimum posse (Verr. i. 2), if the prisoner is convicted, men will no longer say that money is the chief power in the

courts.

(See also under cum, antequam, dum § 62.)

d. Historical Present. The present in lively narrative is often used for the historical perfect: as,

affertur nuntius Syracusas; curritur ad prætorium; Cleomenes, quamquam nox erat, tamen in publico esse non audet; includit se domi (Verr. vi. 35), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to head-quarters; Cleomenes, though it was night, does not venture to be abroad; he shuts himself up at home.

e. The present is regularly used with dum, while, though referring to past time: as,

hæc dum aguntur, interea Cleomenes jam ad Elori litus pervenerat (id.), while this is going on, Cleomenes meanwhile had come down to the coast at Elorum.

But when the time referred to is contrasted with some other, the past tenses must be used: as,

nec enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. M. 22), for even when I was with you, you did not see my soul. f. The present is regularly used of writers whose works are extant: as,

Epicurus vero ea dicit (Tusc. ii. 7), but Epicurus says such things.

apud illum Ulysses lamentatur in vulnere (id. 21), in him [Sophocles] Ulysses bewails over his wound.

3. Imperfect. The Imperfect denotes an action or condition continued or repeated in past time: as,

hunc audiebant antea (Man. 5), they used to hear him before. Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 30), Socrates thought so [habitually] and so he spoke [then].

C. Duilium redeuntem a cenâ senem sæpe videbam (C. M. 13), I would often see Duilius, then old, coming home from dinner.

a. Hence the imperfect is used in descriptions: as,

erant omnino itinera duo

mons altissimus impendebat a very high moun

(B. G. i 6), there were in all two ways.
tain overhung.

...

b. The imperfect is sometimes used in the sense of a pluperfect and imperfect combined (see above, 2, a): as,

copias quas diu comparabant (Fam. i. 13), the forces which they had long been getting ready.

c. The imperfect sometimes denotes an action merely attempted, but never accomplished (compare conative present, 2, b): as,