3. Many nouns may be either according to the sex of the object. COMMON GENDER: as, exsul, exile;

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masculine or feminine, These are said to be of bos, ox or cow.

NOTE. When a noun signifying a thing without life is both masculine and feminine, - as, dies, day; finis, end, it is sometimes said to be of Doubtful Gender.

4. A few names of animals are always connected with adjectives of the same gender, either masculine or feminine, independent of sex. They are called EPICENE.

Thus lepus, hare, is always masculine, and vulpes, fox, feminine. To denote a male fox we may say, vulpes mascula; or a female hare, lepus femina.

7. CASE.

There are in Latin six Cases, which express the relations of nouns to other words. They are usually put in the following order: 1. Nominative; 2. Genitive; 3. Dative; 4. Accusative; 5. Vocative; 6. Ablative.

1. The NOMINATIVE is the case of the Subject of a proposition: as,

pater meus adest, my father is here.

2. The GENITIVE (of) is used like the English possessive; also with many adjectives and verbs, especially those of memory or feeling: as,

patris ejus amīcus miserētur mei, his father's friend pities me.

3. The DATIVE (to or for) is the case of the Indirect Object, and is used to denote the person whose interest is concerned: as,

dedit mihi cultellum: magno mihi usui erat, he gave me a pocket-knife: it was of great service to me.

4. The ACCUSATIVE (objective) is the case of the Direct Object, and is used after most prepositions: as,

pater me ad se vocavit et in hortum duxit, [my] father called me to him, and led me into the garden.

5. The VOCATIVE is used in address: as,

huc věni, care mi filiŏle, come here, my dear little son.

NOTE. As the Vocative is independent of the other words in a sentence, it is by some grammarians not reckoned as a Case.

6. The ABLATIVE (by, from, with) is used with many verbs and prepositions, especially to denote separation or verbs instrument: as,

in horto ludebāmus, et cultello me laesit, we were playing in the garden, and he hurt me with a knife.

NOTE. All, excepting the nominative and vocative, are by the ancient grammarians called " Oblique Cases."

7. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another case (the LOCATIVE), denoting the place where, — generally the same in form as the dative (§ 55. 3. c.): as, Rōmae vel Athēnis esse velim, I should like to be at Rome or Athens.

8. DECLENSION.

1. There are five Declensions, or modes of declining nouns. They are distinguished by the termination of the Genitive Singular, and by the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem. DECL. 1. Gen. Sing. ae Characteristic ă (anciently ā)

a. The stem of a noun may be found, if a consonant-stem, by omitting the case-ending; if a vowel-stem, by substituting for the case-ending the characteristic vowel.

NOTE. - For the division of vowel and consonant-stems in the Third Declension, see § 11.

b. The Nominative of most masculine and feminine nouns (except in the first declension) is formed from the Stem by adding s.

NOTE 1.- Many, however, end in o, or in the liquids 1, n, r,the original s (sometimes with the final letter also) having been lost through phonetic decay. In some (as in filius) the stem-vowel is modified before the final s; and in some, as in ager, a vowel is inserted in the stem.

NOTE 2. -The s of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she.

2. The following are general Rules of Declension:— a. The Vocative is always the same with the Nominative, except in the singular of nouns in us of the second declension. NOTE. In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the (modified) stem-vowel. Most of the words likely to be used in address are of this form; and, in practice, few other words have a vocative.

b. In Neuters, the nominative and accusative are always alike, and in the plural end in ă.

c. Except in some neuters, the accusative singular always ends in m, and the accusative plural in s.

d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the dative singular ends in i

e. The dative and ablative plural are always alike.

f. The genitive plural always ends in um.

3. Case-Endings. The original terminations of the Cases, in Latin, were probably the following:

NOTE. These became so worn by use, and so united with the stem, that they are distinguishable only in consonant-stems. In some instances, one case was substituted for another, or two were merged in one. The combinations are given below as case-endings. The name "stem "is sometimes, conveniently though incorrectly, given to that part of the word—as serv- in servus - which precedes the case-ending.

N.B. Rare forms in parenthesis; Greek forms in italics.

uum

ērum

íbus

Ibus(ŭbus)

ēbus

ēs (īs), a, ia

ūs, ua

ēs

NOUNS.

9. FIRST DECLENSION.

The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends

in a. Latin nouns have the Nominative like the stem.

1. Gender. Most nouns of the first declension are Feminine. Nearly all the exceptions are such as are masculine from their signification: as, nauta, sailor. Also, Hadria, the Adriatic.

2. Case Forms.-a. The genitive singular anciently ended in ai, which is occasionally found in a few authors: as, aulai. The same ending occurs in the dative, but only as a diphthong.

b. There is also an old genitive in ās, found in the word familias used in certain combinations, as, păter (māter, filius, filia) familias, father of a family, &c.

c. The Locative form for the singular ends in ae, and for the plural in is: as, Romae, Athēnis.

d. The genitive plural is sometimes found in um instead of arum, especially in compounds with -cola and -gěna, signifying dwelling and descent: as, caelicŏlum, of the heavenly ones.

e. The dative and ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia, daughter, liberta, freed-woman, equa, mare, mula, she-mule, end in an older form -ābus. But, except when the two sexes (as in wills, &c.) are mentioned together, the form in is is also used.

3. Greek Nouns. Some Greek nouns (chiefly proper names) end in ās, ēs (M.), and ē (F.) in the nominative, and ān or en in the accusative; those in ē have the genitive in ēs (stem ā or ē): as,

NOTE. This form is found only in the singular; the plural is regular as, cometæ, arum, &c. It includes (besides proper names) about thirty-five words, several being names of plants; among others the following, those marked † having also regular forms in a:— bule, council; geometres, geometer; † grammatice, grammar; harpe, sickle; magice, magic; fmusice, music; tode, ode; pandectes, repertory; patriarches, patriarch; † prophetes, prophet; sophistes, sophist; tetrarches, tetrarch; thymele, leader's-stand; † tiaras, tiara.

t

10. SECOND DECLENSION.

The Stem of nouns of the Second Declension ends in o (as of vir, viro-, and of servus, servo-).

NOTE. This form is an original ǎ-stem, to which the a-stem of the first declension is the corresponding feminine.

1. The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding s (in neuters m), the characteristic Ŏ being weakened to ů.

2. In most nouns whose stem ends in ro-, the s is not added, but the o is lost, e being inserted before r.

Thus ager, field (stem agro-), is the same as the Greek ȧypós. The exceptions are, hesperus, humerus, juniperus, morus, numerus, uterus.

NOTE. The old form os, om (for us, um), is sometimes used after u or v: as, servos, servom (§ 1. 2. b.).

3. Gender.-Nouns ending in us (os), er, ir, are Masculine (exc. on p. 16); those ending in um (on) are Neuter. (But which stems are M. or N. can only be learned from the Dictionary.)