a. But not where magis is used: as,

clari magis quam honesti (Jug. 8), more renowned than honorable.

b. A comparative with a positive, or even two positives, may be thus connected by quam (a rare and less elegant use): as, vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more zeal than good heed.

claris majoribus quam vetustis (Ann. iv. 61), of a family more famous than old.

8. Superlatives denoting order and succession often designate not what object, but what part of it, is meant: as,

summus mons, the top of the hill.

in ultima platæa, at the end of the avenue.
prior actio, the earlier part of an action.

So,

Also, medius, midst; ceterus, other; reliquus, remaining: as, reliqui captivi, the rest of the prisoners.

in colle medio (B. G. i. 24), on the middle of the hill.

inter ceteram planitiem (Jug. 92), in a region elsewhere level. Similarly, serā nocte, late at night; nos omnes, all of us (§ 50, 2).

9. The expressions alter. . . alter, alius . . . alius (as also the adverbs derived from them), may be used reciprocally; or may imply a change of predicate as well as of subject: as,

hi fratres alter alterum amant, these brothers love each other. alius aliud petit, one man seeks one thing, one another. alius aliâ ex navi, out of different ships.

alius aliâ viâ civitatem auxerunt (Liv. i. 21), they enlarged the State each in his own way.

For the use of Adjectives as Adverbs, see § 16, 3, f.

For the ablative used adverbially with Comparatives, see § 54, 6, e.

48. OF RELATIVES.

A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in gender and number; but its case depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands: as,

puer qui venit, the boy who came; liber quem legis, the book you are reading; via quā ambulat, the way he walks in.

NOTE.-A Relative is properly an adjective pronoun, of which the proper noun (the Antecedent) is usually omitted. The full construction would require a corresponding demonstrative, to which the relative refers. Hence, relatives serve two uses:- 1. As Nouns in their own clause; 2. As Connectives, and are thus often equivalent to a demonstrative and conjunction combined (see § 69). The connective force is not original, but is developed from a demonstrative or indefinite meaning; the relative and the antecedent clause being originally co-ordinate.

1. A Verb having a relative as its subject takes the person of the expressed or implied antecedent: as,

adsum qui feci (Æn. ix. 427), here am I who did it.

2. A relative generally agrees in gender with a noun (appositive) in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender: as,

mare etiam quem Neptunum esse dicebas (N. D. iii. 20), the sea, too, which you said was Neptune.

a. A relative may (rarely) by Attraction agree with its antecedent in case: as,

si aliquid agas eorum quorum consuêsti (Fam. v. 14), if you do something of what you are used to.

b. A relative may agree in gender and number with an implied antecedent: as,

quartum genus . . . qui premuntur (Cat. ii. 10), a fourth class, that are sinking.

unus ex eo numero qui parati erant (Jug. 35), one of the number [of those] who were ready.

conjuravêre pauci... de quâ [conjuratione] dicam (Sall. C. 18), a few have conspired . . . of which [conspiracy] I will speak. 3. The antecedent noun sometimes appears in both clauses; usually only in the one that precedes; sometimes it is wholly omitted: thus

a. The noun may be repeated in the relative clause: as,

loci natura erat hæc quem locum nostri delegerant (B. G. ii. 18), the nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this. b. The noun may appear only in the relative clause: as, quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hic versibus (Arch. 11), he has touched in verse the things which we did in our consulship.

urbem quam statuo vestra est (Æn. i. 573), yours is the city which I found.

In such cases the demonstrative is or hic usually stands in the antecedent clause: as,

quæ pars civitatis calamitatem populo Romano intulerat, ea princeps pœnas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the State which had brought disaster on the Roman people was the first to pay the penalty.

REMARK. - In a sentence of this class, the relative clause in Latin usually stands first; but, in translating, the noun should be transferred, in its proper case, to the antecedent clause, as in the example just quoted.

c. The antecedent noun may be omitted: as,

qui decimæ legionis aquilam ferebat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] who bore the eagle of the tenth legion.

qui cognoscerent misit (id. i. 21), he sent men to reconnoitre.

d. A predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with the antecedent may stand in the relative clause: as,

vasa ea quæ pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 27), those most beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house.

e. The phrase id quod or quae res is used (instead of quod alone) to relate to an idea or group of words before expressed: [obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique id quod est verius? (Manil. 19), an affront is offered shall I say to Gabinius or Pompey? or-which is truer - to both?

4. A relative often stands at the beginning of a clause or sentence, where in English a demonstrative must be used: as, quæ cum ita sint, since these things are so.

quorum quod simile factum? (Cat. iv. 8), what deed of theirs like this?

qui illius in te amor fuit (Fam. iv. 5), such was his love for you.

5. A Relative Adverb is often equivalent to the relative pronoun with a preposition: as,

quo (= ad quem), to whom; unde (

=a quo), from whom, &c.: as,

apud eos quo se contulit (Verr. iv. 18), among those to whom he resorted.

qui eum necâsset unde ipse natus esset (Rosc. Am. 26), one who should have slain his own father.

A similar use is found with the demonstratives eo, inde, &c: as, eo imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them [the beasts] he puts the baggage.

49. VERBS.

A Verb agrees with its subject-nominative in number and person: as,

ego statuo, I resolve; oratio est habita, the plea was spoken.

REMARK.-The verb in the periphrastic forms sometimes agrees in gender and number with the predicate, or with a noun in apposition: as,

non omnis error stultitia est dicenda (Parad. vi. 3), not every error should be called folly.

Corinthus lumen Græciæ exstinctum est, Corinth the light of Greece is put out.

deliciæ meæ Dicearchus disseruit (Tusc. i. 31), my pet Dicearchus discoursed.

1. Two or more singular subjects take a verb in the plural; also, rarely, when one is in the ablative with cum: (compare § 47, 1), as,

pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead.

dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. xxi. 60), the general and several chiefs are taken.

a. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb will be in the first and the second rather than the third: as,

si tu et Tullia valetis ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.

b. If the subjects are joined by disjunctives, or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is singular: as,

neque fides neque jusjurandum neque illum misericordia repressit (Ter. Ad.), not faith nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked

him.

Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman Senate and people understand.

c. A collective noun also such distributives as quisque, every; uterque, each― may take a plural verb: as,

pars prædas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty.

suum quisque habeant quod suum est (Plaut. Curc.), let every one keep his own.

This is most common in poetry.

d. When the action of the verb belongs to the subjects separately, it may agree with one and be understood with the others: as, intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. i. 2), Antony and Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.

2. The Subject of a finite verb is in the nominative. DEFIN. A Finite Verb is a verb in any mood except the Infinitive.

a. The personal pronoun, as subject, is usually omitted unless emphatic: thus,

loquor, I speak; ego loquor, it is I that speak.

b. An indefinite subject is often omitted: as,

dicunt (ferunt, perhibent), they say.

c. The verb is sometimes omitted in certain phrases: as,

quorsum hæc [spectant]? what does this aim at?

ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will know a lion by his claw. The indicative and infinitive of esse are most frequently omitted. (For the HISTORICAL INFINITIVE, see § 57, 8, h.)

II. Construction of Cases.

NOTE. - The Oblique Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. Originally, the family of languages to which Latin belongs had at least seven cases, besides the vocative, all expressing different relations. Of these the Locative and Instrumental cases were lost, and their functions divided among the others (p. 237). The names of the cases, except the Ablative, are of Greek origin. The name genitive — Gr. yevɩký, from yévos-refers, originally, to the class to which anything belongs. The dative-SoTɩKń — is the case of giving. The name accusative is a mistranslation of airɩatɩêń, signifying that which is effected or caused (airla).

A noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same thing, is put in the genitive.

NOTE. This relation is most frequently expressed in English by the preposition OF. The genitive seems originally to have meant that from which something springs; hence, that to which it belongs. From this signification most of its others may be deduced.