2. Derivation of Verbs. Verbs of the third conjugation, with irregular verbs and vowel-stems dă, stă, are primitive. All others are either causative or denominative (formed from nouns).

NOTE. The consciousness of roots was lost in Latin, so that in forming the parts of verbs only stems are dealt with. Thus moneo, monui (not menui), from root men, as in mens; cædo, cecidi (not cecidi), from root (căd, as in cădo). For modifications of the root in verb-stems, see §§ 28, 30. The derivative suffix in the regular conjugations is original ya added either to the root, the present stem in a, or the

noun-stem.

a. The following are the regular conjugational forms:

1. Verbs of the first conjugation (generally active) may be formed from almost any noun or adjective of the first or second declension, by changing the stem-vowel into the characteristic ā. A few add this vowel to the stem, as vigilare, exsulare.

2. A few verbs of the second conjugation are formed in like manner from noun-stems; but most add the characteristic ē to the root, and are intransitive or neuter in their meaning.

3. A few u-stems simply add the characteristic of the third conjugation, becoming either active or intransitive, as acuo, fluo.

4. Most verbs of the fourth conjugation add the characteristic ī to the root, as scio, salio; many are formed from i-stems, as sitio, finio, polio (see § 34).

:

b. The following are regular derivative suffixes: sco or isco (§ 36, 1) inchoative, denoting the beginning of an action; they imply a primitive verb-stem, which is sometimes found only in the perfect and supine stems.

asso, esso, denote attempt to do a thing; they are of the third conjugation in the present stem, and of the fourth in the perfect and supine.

NOTE. These are probably denominative, from nouns originally in as (Latin es or us), but seem as if formed upon verb-roots.

to, Ito (first conjugation) denote frequent action, being added to the actual supine, or to another form of it, with a connecting vowel i, changing u to the characteristic a of the first conjugation.

illo (first conjugation) denotes feeble or trifling action like that of some simpler verb, but is formed from some real or supposed diminutive noun.

úrio (fourth conjugation), added to the supine-base, denotes desire to do the act expressed by some simple verb; but is formed from some noun of agency in tor (sor). Viso is a regular inherited desiderative of an earlier formation.

3. Compound Words. In compound words, either (1) the second part is merely added to the first; (2) the first part modifies the second as an adjective; (3) the first part is governed by the second as a verb; or (4) a verb is modified by a preposition or adverb prefixed. In all, only the second part receives inflection.

NOTE. The Indo-European family had great power of forming compounds with mere stems. This power the Latin for the most part lost, as has English compared with German. Many compounds attempted by poets failed to become established in the language; but there remain many traces of the old usage.

The most usual compounds may be classed as follows:

a. Meanings added: as suovetaurilia, undecim.

b. Noun with modifying adjective: as latifundium, pœninsula, tergeminus.

c. Noun and Verbal: armiger, cornicen, manifestus, carnufex,

mantele.

d. Compound adjectives, in which the last word is a noun, the compound acquiring the meaning of possessed of the property denoted, as alipes, magnanimus, concors, anceps (having a head at both ends), obvius, multiformis, multiplex.

e. Compounds of facio, with an actual or formerly existing verbal stem in e. These are causative in force, as consuefacio, calefacto.

f. An Adverb or Noun and a Verb, which have grown together: as benedico, satago, jurgo, ausculto.

g. Verbs with Prepositions, usually having their original adverbial sense: as, ab, away; ex, out. In those with circum, praeter, trans, and sometimes ad and per, the compound retains the force of the preposition.

h. Verbs with the following inseparable Particles, which no longer appear as prepositions in Latin: amb (am, an), around; dis, di, asunder (in two); por, forward; red, re, back; sed, se, apart.

PART SECOND.

USE OF WORDS (SYNTAX).

45. DEFINITIONS.

1. Sentence. A SENTENCE is a form of words which contains either a Statement, a Question, an Exclamation, or a Command.

a. A sentence in the form of a Statement is called a DECLARATORY SENTENCE: as, puer vēnit, the boy came.

6. A sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE: as, venitne puer, did the boy come?

c. A sentence in the form of an Exclamation is called an EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE: as, quam celeriter venit! how fast he came!

d. A sentence in the form of a Command is called an IMPERATIVE SENTENCE: as, věni, puer, ad me, come to me, boy.

2. Subject and Predicate. The Subject of a sentence is the person or thing spoken of; the Predicate is that which is stated of the Subject.

a. The Predicate may be either a neuter verb, a noun or adjective with the Copula (esse, fiĕri, &c.), or a Transitive verb with its Object.

b. The verb esse, to be, when it connects an attribute with its subject, is called the Copula; otherwise, it is called the Substantive Verb.

Thus in the sentence sunt viri fortes, there are brave men, sunt is a substantive verb; in viri sunt fortes, the men are brave, it is a copula.

c. The Object of a verb is that on which its action is exerted: thus in the sentence pater vocat filium, the father calls his son, pater is subject, and filium object, of vocat.

d. One or more words, essential to the grammatical completeness of a sentence, may be unexpressed: this is called ELLIPSIS, and the sentence is called an elliptical sentence.

3. Modification. The Subject or Predicate of a sentence may be modified by single words, or by a phrase or clause. The modifying word may itself be modified in the same way.

a. A single modifying word is generally either an Adjective, an Adverb, an Appositive (§ 46), or the oblique case of a Noun. Thus in the sentence puer formosus venit, a handsome boy came, the adjective formosus modifies the subject puer; in the sentence celeriter venit, he came quickly, the adverb celeriter modifies the predicate venit.

b. The modifying word is in some cases said to limit the word to which it belongs: thus in the sentence video pueri patrem, I see the boy's father, the genitive pueri limits patrem.

4. Phrase. A Phrase is a group of words, without subject or predicate of its own, which may be used as an Adjective or Adverb.

Thus in the sentence puer erat eximiae formae, he was a boy of remarkable beauty, the words eximiae formae are used for the adjective formosus (or formosissimus), and are called an ADJECTIVE PHRASE; in the sentence magnā celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words magna celeritate are used for the adverb celeriter (or celerrime), and are called an ADVERBIAL PHRASE.

5. Clause. A Clause is a group of words forming part of a sentence, and having a subject and predicate of its own.

Thus in the sentence puer qui heri venit formosus erat, the boy who came yesterday was handsome, the words qui heri venit are a Relative ClausE; in the sentence puer si cras veniat acceptus sit, if the boy should come to-morrow he would be welcome, the words si cras veniat, are a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE.

a. When a Clause is used as the Subject or Object of a verb, it is called a Substantive Clause (see § 70).

b. When a clause is used to modify the subject or predicate of a sentence, it is called a Subordinate Clause. Subordinate Clauses are Conditional, Temporal, Causal, Consecutive, and Final, like the conjunctions which introduce them (§ 43; 1, b).

c. When two or more clauses in the same sentence are independent of one another, they are said to be Coördinate.

d. Any clause introduced by a Relative is called a Relative Clause; when used simply by way of explanation, and not otherwise connected with the form of the sentence, it is called an Intermediate Clause (§ 66).

e. A clause expressing the purpose of an action is called a Final Clause; one expressing its result is called a Consecutive Clause (see §§ 64, 65).

NOTE. In English, a Consecutive clause is introduced by the phrase so that; a Final clause by the phrase in order that.

f. A clause containing a condition, introduced by IF or some equivalent (§ 59), is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence modified by a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence.

NOTE. - Observe that these classes are not exclusive, but that a single clause may belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause may be subordinate, conditional, or intermediate; and two subordinate clauses may be coördinate with each other.

6. Connectives. Sentences or coördinate clauses are regularly connected by means of Conjunctions; but frequently in Latin - very rarely in English-sentences are connected by Relatives.

In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by a conjunction with a demonstrative: as, quo cum venisset, and when he had come there; quae cum ita sint, but since these things are so (§ 43, 3, k).

7. Agreement. A word is said to AGREE with another when it is required to be in the same gender, number, case, or person.

When a word takes the gender or number of some other word implied in that with which it should agree, this use is called SYNESIS, or constructio ad sensum.

8. Government. A word is said to GOVERN another, when it requires the latter to be in a particular case.

I. Subject and Predicate.

46. OF NOUNS.

A noun used to describe another, and meaning the same thing, agrees with it in Case: as,

Servius rex, Servius the king.

ad urbem Solos, to the city Soli.

spes nostra Cicero, Cicero our hope.

homo nata fuerat, she had been born human.