LATIN GRAMMAR.

PART FIRST.

FORMS OF WORDS (ETYMOLOGY).

1. ALPHABET.

THE Latin Alphabet is the same as the English, wanting w.

NOTE. The letter w is found, however, in many modern Latin words, especially proper names.

1. Classification.

classified as follows:

The letters of the alphabet are

a. VOWELS (litterae vocales, or voice-letters): a, e, i, o, u, y. The following are Diphthongs (double-vowels): ae (a), au, eu, oe (œ), ei, ui.

b. CONSONANTS (litterae consonantes, i.e., sounding-with the vowels):

The letters i (j) and u (v) at the beginning of a syllable before a vowel, also u in quis, suadeo, &c., are SEMI-VOWELS. The consonants f, g, p, z, are never used at the end of a word.

NOTE. The Aspirate (or breathing) h follows in inflection the rule of palatals; and was originally, in many words, a harsh guttural (kh), like the Greek x, or the Spanish j. Its later sound was very slight, and in most languages derived from Latin has quite disappeared. Sometimes, as in aheneus (= aëneus), it seems to be used only to separate two vowels. It is not reckoned as a consonant in Prosody.

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, x. y and z were added, in words derived from Greek. i and u, when used as consonants (“semi-vowels "), having the sound of y and w, are generally written j and v: as, juvenis for iuuenis. a. In early use, c was not distinguished in form or sound from After the distinction was made, C was still used, conventionally, as the initial of names (Gaius, Gnaeus) beginning properly with G. It came, in later use, to take the place of k, which was retained only in abbreviations, or as the initial letter of a few words, as Kalendae, Karthago, in which it is followed by a.

g.

b. Till after the age of Augustus, u was never, in good use, preceded in the same syllable by u or v. In many words, as in volt, servos, o was written where later custom allows u; while c was regularly used for qu in such words as cum (for quum), ecus (for equus), relicus (for reliquus), locuntur (for loquuntur), and the like; also in cotidie (for quotidie), and a few other words. The old forms quom (for cum) and quor (for cur) are also found.

c. At the end of a few words, as sed, apud, illud, t was anciently written instead of d. In words ending in -s, final s was often elided (Cic. Orat. 48), as in qualist (qualis-est); plenu' fidei (Senect. 1).

3. Changes. —Letters are often changed, according to general laws of inflection (vowel-increase), or to secure an easier or smoother sound (euphonic change); or have been altered or lost through long use (phonetic decay). Of such changes are the following:

a. Vowels are strengthened in inflection and derivation (vowelincrease): as, ǎgo, ēgi (cf. tell, told); disco, dŏceo (cf. fall, fell ; sit, set); pendo, pondus; persono, persōna; perfidus, fidus, foedus (cf. bind, band).

NOTE.-The primitive vowel-sound may be assumed to be a, as in father. Starting with this, and gradually contracting the palate, we form in succession the sound of e (a) and i (ee), leading to the semi-vowel j (y). By contracting the lips, we in like manner form the sound of o and u (oo), leading to the semi-vowel v (w). By contracting both palate and lips, we form the French sound of u,in Greek v, and in Latin y. This, which is called the Vowel-Scale, is of great service in tracing the modifications of vowel-sounds. It may be represented thus:

a

е

i, j

y v, u

b. Vowels are weakened by negligent pronunciation for long periods of time (phonetic decay). Thus, on one side of the scale, a becomes e, then i; or, on the other, becomes o, then u; while u and i meet in the French u (y): as, agmen, agminis; făcio, conficio, confectum; sălio, exsulto; sepělio, sepultus; ebur, ebŏris; maxŭmus, maximus (cf. master, mister, mistress).

c. Two vowels coming together are contracted into a single sound: as, obit (obiit), cogo (co-ago), nil (nihil), debeo (dehibeo), coetus (coïtus), ingeni (cf. mayhem, maim).

d. The semi-vowels j and v are lost before a vowel, contraction sometimes also taking place: as, obicit (ŏbjicit), cōnicit (conjicit), cunctus (conjunctus), rursus (reversus), contio (conventio), mōtum (mŏvitum).

e. Between two vowels, or before m or n, s becomes r: as, genus, generis; maereo, maestus; veternus (vetus-nus), carmen (casmen), dirimo (dis-imo), diribeo (dis-habeo). f. When two consonants come together by derivation, inflection, or composition, an easier pronunciation is secured thus:

:

1. The first is entirely assimilated to the second. Thus, a liquid, -m, n, or (less frequently) r-before another liquid is changed to that liquid [but r is not changed to m or n]: as, collego (con-lego), corrigo (com-rego), illudo (in-ludo), illico (in loco), intellego (inter-lego), asellus (asin[ullus). So d before 1: as in lapillus (lapidulus); and b (rarely) before a liquid: as, summitto (submitto).

2. The former is assimilated in kind. Thus::-a. A sonant before a surd becomes surd: as, tego, texi (x=cs), tectum; nubo, nupsi, nuptum ; coquo, coxi, coctum. -b. A surd before a sonant becomes sonant, as in segmentum (seco).· -c. A labial nasal before a dental mute sometimes becomes dental contendo (com-tendo), jandudum (jam dudum), quantus (quamtus).-d. A dental nasal before a labial sometimes becomes labial: as, impono (in-pono). — -e. d and t before t sometimes become s (see 4): as, equester (equet-ter), est (edt).

3. The former is lost, having probably been first assimilated. Thus: :-a. d and t are lost before s, but sometimes only assimilated: as, pedes (pedets), vas (vads, vadis), esse (edse, edo).-b. c and g are lost before t and s when 1 or r precedes: as, sartus (=sarctus, sarcio), mulsi (=mulgsi, mulgeo), indultus (=indulgtus, indulgeo). — -c. c and g are sometimes lost before m and ǹ: as, examen (exagmen), luna (lucna), lumen (luc-men).

4. The second is partially assimilated to the first (as in English wrecked becomes, in pronouncing, reckt); in this case both are often changed. Thus, after n and I-rarely after other letters - t becomes s (the continued sound corresponding to the explosive t): as, mansus (=mantus, maneo), pulsus (pello), casus (cado), passus (=pattus, patior), sparsus (=spargtus, spargo), tensus (tendo, but also tentus), fixus (figo, but fictus from fingo), maximus (for mag-timus), lapsus (labor), passus (pando).

NOTE. After m, before s or t, p is inserted for euphony: as, sumo, sumpsi, sumptum. So hiemps for hiems.

g. Especially the final consonant of prepositions was assimilated to the initial consonant of verbs.

Thus, ad is assimilated before c, g, p, t; less regularly before 1, r, s, and rarely before m; while before f, n, q, the form ad is to be preferred; ab is not assimilated, but may take the form a, au, or abs; in com (con, co), m is retained before b, p, m; is assimilated before 1, n, r; is changed to n before c, d, f, g, i, q, s, v; varies between m and n before p; is sometimes assimilated (otherwise n) before r and 1; and loses the final m in conecto, coniveo, conitor, conubium; -in usually changes n to m before b, m, p; before I the better orthography retains n;-ob and sub are assimilated before c, f, g, p, and sometimes before m; sub also before r; and, in early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes becomes p before s or t. The inseparable amb loses b before a consonant, and m is sometimes assimilated; - circum loses m before a vowel ; -s of dis before a vowel becomes r, and before a conso nant is lost or assimilated; —the d of red and sed is generally lost before a consonant.

NOTE. In most of these cases the later editions prefer the unaltered forms throughout; but the changes given above have good authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as assum for adsum), would better be avoided.

h. The combinations ci and ti before a vowel are found interchanged in many words: as in nuntius or nuncius; contio or concio; but in these cases only one is correct: as, contio, dicio.

NOTE. The substitution of c for t is an example of phonetic decay, and belongs to a later period of the language. In Italian, z, and in Spanish, c, has regularly taken the place of t in such combinations as in nazione, nacion. The sound of s (assibilation) or of sh traceable in them led gradually to the adoption of this as the regular sound of c before e or i.

i. The aspirate his occasionally used to indicate the hard sound of c, as in pulcher for pulcer. Many words are written sometimes with and sometimes without an initial h: as, arena or harena, ariolor or hariolor, erus or herus. The combinations ph, th, are found only in words taken from the Greek.

k. The following words are variously spelt in different editions, inferior or rejected forms being marked † :

Adolescens, adulescens; ancora, anchora; annulus, anulus; arctus, artus; cæcus, cœcus; cœlum, cœlum; cæruleus, cæruleus; causa, caussa; caspes, cespes; ceteri, † cæteri; cœna, cana, cena; condicio, † conditio; conjunx, tconjux; contio, † concio; dicio, † ditio; dumtaxat, duntaxat; epistola, epistula; eumdem, eundem; exsisto, existo (and other compounds of ex before s); femina, fœmina; fenus, fæenus, fœnus; heres, † hæres; hædus, thœdus; hiems(ps), † hyems; idcirco, † iccirco; immo, imo; inclutus, † inclytus; intellego, intelligo; lacrima, † lacryma; litera, littera; litus, † littus; lubet, libet; mæror, maror; milia, † millia; multa, mulcta; †nce, ne ; nequidquam, nequiquam; numquam, nunquam; †nuncio, nuntio; paullus, paulus; quicquid, quidquid; religio, relligio; retuli, rettuli; silva, † sylva;

solennis, solemnis; solers, sollers; sulfur, †sulphur; tamquam, tanquam ; thesaurus, thensaurus; thus, tus; tiro, † tyro; umquam, unquam; ungo, unguo; verto, vorto; also, the gerund-forms -endus or -undus; and the superlative -imus or -umus.

NOTE.-Many of the above variations are due to the practice of writing from dictation, or by the ear, by which most MS. copies of the classics were made, - -a single reader often dictating to numerous copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt, and without authority.

4. Combinations. Two words are often united in writing, and sometimes in sound.

a. Conjunctions or other particles are thus connected: as in etenim, jamdiu, siquis, and siquidem.

So the adverbial combinations quare, quamobrem, &c., as in English nevertheless, notwithstanding.

b. The verb est, is, is joined with the preceding word, especially in the old poets, or when the two would be united by elision: as, homost, periculumst.

c. Similar contractions are found in vin' (visne), sçin' (scisne), sis (si vis), sodes (si audes), as in English, don't, won't.

5. Syllables. In the division of syllables, a single consonant between two vowels is to be written with the latter.

a. This rule is usually extended to double consonants, or any combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word: as, ho-spes, ma-gnus, di-xit.

b. In compounds, the parts should be separated: as, ab-est, ob-latus.

c. A syllable preceded by a vowel in the same word is called

pure; when preceded by a consonant, impure.

d. An initial syllable ending, or a final syllable beginning, with a vowel, is called open; otherwise, it is called close.

1. Roman. -The Roman pronunciation of the Vowels was, no doubt, nearly like the Italian; which, with little variation, is that found in most of the continental languages of Europe. That of some of the Consonants is more uncertain. In the system of pronunciation founded on ancient