at every turn that the 'services' are being ruined, because the country is being benefited at the expense of the lifelong prejudices of an official class. But first let these show that they are in any way entitled to a hearing, for at this moment they, and their whole administration, are on their trial. What have they done? The results of this excessive Europeanisation, and this Pelion upon Ossa of paper government, we see. It has crushed the very life out of the people we rule. Surely it is high time to try less heroic methods. Every thousand pounds drawn away from India unnecessarily to pay expensive European agency, pensions, and interest on unremunerative public works, is so much capital diverted from profitable investment in our dependency, at a high rate of interest-so much taken from profitable purchases to be made from our own people. Famines in India mean stagnation in England and distress in our own manufacturing centres. When the interests alike of England and of India are on one hand, and the well-meaning but mistaken theories of a bureaucracy on the other, who can doubt which will have to stand aside?

It is on this ground that appeal may be fearlessly made to the English people, who-whatever a small minority may shrilly urge— take pride in the greatness of their Empire, and have the capacity to see that the well-being of our fellow-subjects is far more to our advantage than a steady decline in their prosperity, owing to a system which benefits but few among us. If we cannot keep India save by inflicting perpetual impoverishment and starvation upon an increasing number of the population, then we cannot leave the country too soon. But if, as I firmly believe, we can stay to the advantage of all, then let us at least begin to correct the blunders we have made. It was no economical bigot who proclaimed that India could be defended and governed for 30,000,000l. a year, and that every rupee spent in addition did but work injury to the population; it was no mere sciolist who contended that the cost of the army ought never to exceed 12,500,000l. All admit the extravagance, but no one as yet has shown the courage and determination to apply the necessary remedies. To say that in future India must be governed for the sake of its inhabitants, means undoubtedly the displacement in the future of many of our own countrymen from offices in that country. But we cannot shrink from this necessary change because of its difficulty or the opposition it will provoke. Already the first steps are being taken, and, as years pass on, our constant endeavour must be to secure our position by the welfare, prosperity, and, as far as possible, the self-government of the immense population under our control. The work will be troublesome, but the end is noble, and the reward is sure. Planting a great policy is like planting a great tree; we may never live to see it in full vigour, but generations to come shall bless us for its beauty and its shade.

H. M. HYNDMAN.

ON EPITHETS OF MOVEMENT IN

HOMER.

SOME TIME AGO1 I endeavoured to show by a copious exhibition of Homer's phrases of colour, that his discrimination of the various forms of decomposed light was imperfectly developed, while his perceptions of light itself, apart from colour, were highly vivid and effective. It is matter of interest to consider as kindred topics the manner in which he appreciated other visible phenomena, such as those of form and movement. I now propose to investigate his use of epithets in connection with movement. These epithets are not only copious and diversified, but in some important respects may be called even scientific: namely, where they have reference to velocity in its several degrees, and in the manner of its production.

Corporeal motion may be considered, first of all, as slow or quick. These terms are relative only, and do not rest upon a distinction of definable essence. But as darkness offers little material and little attraction to the Poet in comparison with light, so slowness is for him a trivial and barren subject in comparison with speed. At the very threshold, accordingly, we are met by this fact that slow movement has little of particular description in Homer. I do not recollect that he anywhere distinguishes majestic and stately movement from such as is merely slow. It may seem as if his mind already indicated in germ a reaction from Egyptian art, and its main principle of repose, in favour of the principle of motion, which was characteristic rather of the Assyrian school. Most certainly we do not find the distinction taken where we might positively have expected it, as when Zeus, after his interview with Thetis, moves into the circle of the gods. And at any rate, be the cause what it may, bradūs (ẞpadús), which may be considered as the staple expression of slowness, is only used six times. in the Poems. Its substantive Bpadúrns is also found, but only once. Of the seven passages, four refer to the pace of horses. He uses no other word to describe the slow pace of the animal. For its rapid pace he has, between epithets and phrases, eight or nine.

The root of bradūs is brad, bard; and the meaning of this root träg, stumpfsinnig, and the like (Benfey, i. 509). Signifying dull

1 Nineteenth Century, October 1877. Also Studies on Homer (1858), vol. iii. p. 457.

and sluggish, it is not akin to bri the root of obrimos, though the idea of weight be a middle term between them: for weight may be considered on the one side as embodying force; on the other as resisting motion by inertia.

In Homer, bradus is applied to the mind; but only in the comparative degree (П. x. 225, ẞpáσowv Tε vóos) and metaphorically. Considered as an epithet descriptive of movement between place and place, it is at the bottom of the quantitative scale, as wkús is at the top. In the first of these, mass is at a maximum, and the element of speed is evanescent; in the second, speed is superlative, and mass approximates to zero.

This may be the proper place for two remarks before entering into the general discussion.

First. All use of epithets of motion for the mind is, of course, metaphorical and secondary. In one very curious passage (Il. xv. 80) this figurative movement is actually made the basis of a simile to illustrate the flight of Herè from Ida to Olumpos. This will be noticed under the term paiπvós: but the general inquiry will turn mainly upon material motion.

Secondly. We may take material motion as it is quantitative, or as it is qualitative. By quantitative motion, I mean that which has reference only to rate or speed: by qualitative motion, that which embraces other ideas, such as those of direction, or of intermission; or properties of the mind exhibited in motion, or suggested by it. I now proceed with the discussion.

This purely quantitative motion of material objects is expressed in the mathematical formula MxQV: signifying that Momentum varies as, or corresponds with, the Quantity of matter, or mass, multiplied into the Velocity, or time in which a given space. would be traversed. It is the product of those two factors: and momentum is the force which belongs to matter when in movement, and which may be spent in overcoming pressure, or in traversing aerial space. As a given momentum is thus the product of two factors, it admits of being supplied, where M is a constant, by different combinations of the two, in each of which the one factor will be greater as the other is smaller. Bradūs and okūs exhibit the extremes of the combination. Between these two come other words-namely (Ooós), thoos, (Ooûpos), thouros, and (oßpiμos) obrimos; and the five epithets may be arranged as follows in a quantitative scale :

1. Okus. Here Q is at its minimum; the mind hardly takes notice of it; it may be practically disregarded: and V is at its maximum.

2. Thoos. Here both Q and V are distinctly presented to the mind as the factors from which momentum, or force of impact, results. But velocity decidedly predominates over mass or quantity

of matter.

3. Thouros is the middle term of the series. Here again both the factors Q and V are distinctly presented, and each is raised to a full height; each is adequately balanced against the other. If we compare thouros with thoos, there is no reduction of velocity in thouros. On the other hand, there is palpably a greater momentum or force of impact. This is supplied, V remaining the same, by the augmentation of Q. The position of thouros may be further elucidated by comparing it with the next member of the scale.

4. Obrimos. It will be found that this epithet always implies motion, actual or proximate: and it may be considered as the precise opposite of thoos. For while the two elements of mass and speed are combined, each of them with a substantive, and not an evanescent, force, in the two words respectively, mass is as decidedly dominant in obrimos, as velocity in thoos.

5. Bradūs is the opposite of okus. Speed becomes evanescent : the motion that remains hardly seems to generate force of impact; which, until the steam-engine came, the human mind had learned always to associate with more or less of impetus or stroke. Slowness of motion is conceived almost as negation of motion, and the force of inertia is the residue, the force of momentum not contributing in an appreciable manner to the idea: for, though present, it does not suggest itself through the eye to the mind.

Let us return now to the formula MxQ V. Let M, a given amount of moving force, be represented by the number 12. It is required to produce, by the different combinations of Q and V, the amount of force measured by the number 12, in the modes indicated by each of these five epithets.

In the cases of okūs and bradūs, what I have called the evanescent factor may be conveniently indicated by unity.

M=12=QV=1 × 12=12.

In bradūs, Q rises from unity to 12, and V sinks from 12 to unity.

M=12=QV=12 × 1 =12.

In thouros, the middle term of the series, the two elements of mass and speed are set in equilibrium to produce the quality of motion, and the quantity of momentum, which are required. Therefore

and we have

Q= √12=V= √12;

M=12=QV= √12 x √12=12.

But in thoos and in obrimos, while each element is substantive and appreciable, one is dominant, with a certain range of degree. If largely dominant, then we may say, for thoos,

Q=2 and V=6.

So we have

M=12=Q V=2×6=12.

If less decisively dominant, as, for example, in the case of a ship, we may take

and

Q=3 and V=4;

M=12=QV=3x4=12.

For obrimos, these combinations will simply be reversed. If the object be one like the door of the cavern in Od. ix. 241, we may take Q=6 and V=2.

If it be the spear hurled in battle, we may take

Q=4 and V=3.

The result in each case being 12.

These numbers do not, of course, describe with exactitude the quantities of momentum, mass, and speed, but they indicate by approximation and relatively the value of the respective epithets in such a manner as to justify us in stating that Homer has conceived and applied these epithets in a quantitative scale, and with something at least approaching to a scientific arrangement.

All these words, however, have regard (a) to motion when already generated; (b) to motion which is, speaking roughly, uniform, and in a right line between point and point; (c) to motion as it is in itself, a physical phenomenon, without any regard to the frame of mind which it may indicate, or which may have prompted it: except that as to the word thouros, which is used for Ares only, it may perhaps be argued, even if disputably, that a mental quality of impetuosity is implied. But Homer has other words, which provide for the signification of these different ideas. Of the three heads, the first, or motion as already generated, demands a particular notice.

Apart from motion already generated, we have to consider the mode and conditions of its generation. Of the two factors which make up momentum, the one indicated by Q, or mass of matter, is very far from making (so to speak) an original contribution to motion, for it resists by inertia any effort to stir it, and only on receiving motion This from without thereby becomes a contributor to momentum. operation, of bringing mass into motion by overcoming its resistance, is performed by a consumption of time upon it; and according to the greater or less quantity of time required for the first generation of the motion, bodies capable of motion present to us another quality, that of readiness or unreadiness to move. The body, in which the