COMPOSITION, in commerce, commonly implies the dividend or sum paid by an insolvent debtor to his creditors, and accepted by them in payment for their debts. CONEY WOOL (Ger. Kaninchenwolle; Du. Konynhair; Fr. Poil de lapin; It. Pelo di Coniglio; Sp. Conejuna), the fur of rabbits. This article is extensively used in the hat manufacture; and besides the large supplies raised at home, a great deal is imported. The imports usually range from about 300,000 to about 500,000 skins a year; but, in 1831, they exceeded 900,000, while, in 1827, they were only 197,000. CONSTANTINOPLE, formerly the metropolis of the Eastern, as it still is of the Turkish Empire, is situated on a triangular point of land, on the European side of the Sea of Marmara (Propontis), at the point where it unites with the Bosphorus, or channel leading to the Black Sea, in lat. 41° 0′ 12′′ N., lon. 28° 59′ 2′′ E. Population variously estimated at from 300,000 to 600,000, but believed, by the best authorities, to be about 400,000. The situation of this renowned city is, in a commercial point of view, one of the finest imaginable. Standing on the narrow straits uniting the Mediterranean and Euxine Seas, she at once commands, and is the entrepôt for, the commerce between them. The harbour, whence the Turkish court has taken the appellation of the Sublime Porte, is most excellent. It consists of an extensive inlet, or arm of the sea, stretching along the north-east side of the city, which it divides from the suburbs of Galata and Pera. It has sufficient depth of water to float the largest ships, and can accommodate more than 1,000 sail. The strong current that sets through the Bosphorus into the Sea of Marmara strikes against Seraglio Point- (see Plan); a part of the water, being in consequence forced into the harbour, runs along its south-western side in the direction marked by the arrows-(see Plan), -till, arriving at its extremity, it escapes by the opposite side. In the middle the water is still. On leaving the port, it is necessary to keep well over to the northern side; for otherwise the ship might be taken by the current, and driven on Seraglio Point. It may be worth while, however, to remark, that notwithstanding this inconvenience, the current has been of signal service to the city, by scouring the harbour, and carrying away the filth and ballast by which it must otherwise have been long since choked up. The distance across from Seraglio Point to the opposite suburb of Scutari, on the Asiatic coast, is rather more than an English mile. Within less than of a mile of the latter is a rocky islet, upon which is a tower and light-house, known by the name of the Tower of Leander. Foreigners reside in Galata, Pera, and the suburbs on the eastern side of the harbour; and it is thore, consequently, that the principal trade of the place is carried on. The quays are good, and ships lie close alongside.

The

The Bosphorus, or channel of Constantinople, runs in a N. E. by N. direction about 15 miles, varying in breadth from 1 to mile. It is swept by a rapid current, which it requires a brisk gale to stem, and has throughout a great depth of water. Hellespont, or strait of the Dardanelles, leading from the Archipelago to the Sea of Marmara, is about 13 leagues in length. Its direction is nearly N. E. Where narrowest, it is little more than a mile across. It also is swept by a strong current, and has deep water throughout.

The subjoined plan of part of Constantinople and its port is copied, without reduction, from the beautiful plan of the city and Bosphorus, drawn and engraved by M. Merzoff Robert of Munich, and published by Mr. Wilde, of this city.

Nothing can be more imposing than the appearance of the city when seen from the sea, but on landing the illusion vanishes. The streets are narrow, dark, ill-paved and irregular. Owing to the want of any effective system of police, and of the most ordinary attention to cleanliness, they are extremely filthy; and are infested with herds of dogs, and also with rats, which perform the functions of scavengers. The houses are mostly built of wood, and fires are very frequent. Most of these happen designedly; the burning of a few hundred houses being deemed the readiest and most effectual means of making the government aware of the public dissatisfaction, and of procuring a redress of grievances!

Money. Accounts are kept in piastres of 40 paras, or 120 aspers. The Turkish coin has been so much degraded, that the piastre, which a few years ago was worth 2s. sterling, is now worth little more than 4d. A bag of silver (kefer) = 500 piastres, and bag of gold (kitze) = 30,000 piastres.

Weights and Measures. The commercial weights are- 176 drams = 1 rottolo; 2-272 rottoli = 1 oke; 6 okes = 1 batman; 7 batmans = 1 quintal or cantaro = 124-457 (184) very nearly) lbs, avoirdu pois 56437 kilogrammes = 116 527 lbs. of Hamburgh. The quintal of cotton is 45 okes 1272 lbs. avoirdupois.

The greater, called halebi or arschim inches (279). The lesser, called endest, Hence 100 long piks 77 498 English

The pik, or pike, is of two sorts, the greater and the less. used in the measurement of silks and woollens, is very near 28 used in the measuring of cottons, carpets, &c. = 27 inches. yards, and 100 short piks = 75-154 do. But in ordinary commercial affairs, the pik is estimated at of an English yard.

Corn is measured by the kislox or killow = 0·941 of a Winchester bushel; 8 kisloz = 1 quarter. The forlin 4 kisloz.

Oil and other liquids are sold by the alma or meter = 1 gallon 3 pints English wine measure. The alma of oil should weigh 8 okes. (Nelkenbrecher aud Dr. Kelly.)

The Port Charges on account of English vessels in the harbours of the Ottoman empire are fixed by treaty at 300 aspers, neither more nor less.

References to Plan. A, Seraglio Point: B, Galata; C, Scutari; D, Tower and lighthouse of Leander. The arrows show the direction of the currents. The soundings are in fathoms.

Trade, &c. Owing to the vicious institutions of the Turks, and the disorganised state of the empire, the trade of Constantinople is very far from being so extensive as might be supposed from its situation and population. The imports consist of corn, iron, timber, tallow, and furs, principally from the Black Sea; and of cotton stuffs and yarn, tin, tin plates, woollens, silks, cutlery, watches and jewellery, paper, glass, furniture, indigo, cochineal, &c. from England and other European countries. Corn and coffee are imported from Alexandria; but a good deal of Brazil and West India coffee is also imported, particularly in American bottoms. Sugar is partly imported from the East, but

principally from the West Indies. The exports are very trifling, consisting of silk, car pets, hides, wool, goats' hair, potashes, wax, galls, bullion and diamonds, and a few other articles. Ships carrying goods to Constantinople, either return in ballast, or get return cargoes at Smyrna, Odessa, Salonica, &c., on which places they frequently procure bills at Constantinople. Trade is chiefly in the hands of English, French, and other European merchants (denominated Franks), and of Armenians and Greeks. Bargains are negotiated on their account by Jew brokers, some of whom are rich.

Commercial Policy of the Turks. - It is singular that as respects commerce, the policy of the Turkish government, whether originating in design or carelessness, is entitled to the highest praise. "No restrictions," says Mr. Thornton, "are laid on commerce, except in the instance of a general prohibition of exporting the articles necessary for the support of human life to foreign countries, especially from the capital, where alone it is rigorously enforced; and this impolitic restraint will no doubt be removed, when the Turkish government shall become sensible, that what is intended as the means of securing abundance, is, in fact, the sole cause of that scarcity which is sometimes expe rienced. With this one exception, commerce is perfectly free and unfettered. Every article of foreign or domestic growth or manufacture is conveyed into every port, and over every province, without any interference on the part of the magistrates, after payment of the duties. On this subject I speak from actual experience, and may appeal to every foreign or native merchant in Turkey for its general truth."―(Present State of Turkey, vol. i. p. 82.)

The duties, too, are extremely moderate, being only three per cent. on imports, and as as much on exports; so that in almost all that relates to her commercial regulations, Turkey is entitled to read a lesson to the most civilised European powers; and this she has done in a very able manner, in an official paper published in the Moniteur Ottoman, in September, 1832. We extract a few paragraphs from this very interesting document.

"It is recognised throughout Europe that it would be useful to the great majority to substitute, for the system of prohibitions, that of liberty, which theoretical men advocate; the difficulty is, to find ineans to separate the future from the past without a violent rupture. Hence the difficulties of government in satisfying all the exigencies of agriculture, industry, and commerce, driven in a circle where every measure in favour of one, acts immediately in an inverse sense on the other. The endeavour is vain to establish, between so many crossing interests, a factitious equilibrium which absolute liberty of exchange alone can give.

"Thus, one of the most important questions which occupies the meditation of statesmen in Europe, is, to discover how the palings which pen commerce up in narrow spaces may be thrown down without shocks that might endanger public order.

"Good sense, tolerance, and hospitality, have long ago done for the Ottoman empire, what the other states of Europe are endeavouring to effect by more or less happy political combinations. Since the throne of the sultans has been elevated at Constantinople, commercial prohibitions have been unknown; they opened all the ports of their empire to the commerce, to the manufactures, to the territorial produce of the Occident, or, to say better, of the whole world. Liberty of commerce has reigned here without limits, as large, as extended as it was possible to be.

"Never has the divan dreamed, under any pretext of national interest, or even of reciprocity, of restricting that faculty which has been exercised, and is to this day, in the most unlimited sense, by all the nations who wish to furnish a portion of the consumption of this vast empire, and to share in the produce of its territory.

"Here every object of exchange is admitted, and circulates without meeting any obstacle other than the payment of an infinitely small portion of the value to the Custom-house. The chimera of a balance of trade never entered into heads sensible enough not to dream of calculating whether there was most profit in buying or selling. Thus the markets of Turkey, supplied from all countries, refusing no objects which mercantile spirit puts in circulation, and imposing no charge on the vessels that transport them, are seldom or never the scenes of those disordered movements occasioned by the sudden deficiency of such or such merchandise, which, exorbitantly raising prices are the scourges of the lower orders, by unsettling their habits, and by inflicting privations. From the system of restrictions and prohibitions arise those devouring tides and ebbs which sweep away in a day the labour of years, and convert com. merce into a career of alarms and perpetual dangers. In Turkey, where this system does not exist, these disastrous effects are unknown.

"The extreme moderation of the duties is the complement of this régime of commercial liberty: and in no portion of the globe are the officers charged with the collection, of more confiding facility for the valuations, and of so decidedly conciliatory a spirit in every transaction regarding commerce.

"Away with the supposition that these facilities granted to strangers, are concessions extorted from weakness! The dates of the contracts termed capitulations, which establish the rights actually enjoyed by foreign merchants, recall periods at which the Mussulman power was altogether predominant in Europe. The first capitulation which France obtained was in 1535, from Soliman the Canonist (the Magnificent). The dispositions of these contracts have become antiquated, the fundamental principles remain. Thus, 300 years ago, the sultans, by an act of munificence and of reason, anticipated the most ardent desires of civilised Europe, and proclaimed unlimited freedom of commerce."

Did the policy of Turkey in other respects harmonise with this, she would be one of the most civilised and powerful of nations, instead of being one of the most abject and degraded. Unfortunately, however, this is very far from being the case. Tyranny, corruption, and insecurity universally prevail. "The cultivator of the soil is ever a helpless prey to injustice and oppression. The government agents have to suffer in their turn from the cruelty and rapacity of which they themselves have been guilty; and the manufacturer has to bear his full share of the common insecurity; he is fixed to the spot and cannot escape the grasp of the local governor. The raw material monopolised by a bey or ayan, may be forced upon him at a higher price than he could purchase it himself, and perhaps of inferior quality; fines may be imposed upon him, he may be

taken for forced labour, or troops may be quartered on his workshop." — (Urquhart on Turkey and its Resources, p. 139.)

This miserable system has overspread some of the fairest provinces of Europe and Asia with barbarism-turned their cities into villages, and their palaces into cottages: but the degradation in which they are involved, would have been still more complete, but for the freedom of commerce they have always enjoyed. This has tended to keep alive the seeds of industry, and to counteract the destructive influence of oppression and insecurity. Had their intercourse with foreigners been either prohibited, or placed under oppressive restrictions, the barbarism of Turkey would have been completed, and it is difficult to suppose that there could have been either wealth or industry in the empire.

Trade of Turkey with England. - The trade between this country and Turkey is of much greater value and importance than is generally supposed; and appears to be susceptible of an almost indefinite increase. Cotton stuffs and twist are the great articles of export from Great Britain to Turkey; and notwithstanding the convulsed and distracted state of the latter during the last 5 years, she has continued to take off a rapidly increasing amount of these staple articles. In 1825, for example, we exported direct for Turkey, (including what is now the kingdom of Greece), 13,674,000 yards of cotton cloth, and 446,462 lbs. of cotton twist; whereas, in 1831, we exported to Turkey (exclusive of the Morca), 24,565,000 yards of cloth, and 1,735,760 lbs. of twist, being an increase of nearly 100 per cent. in the exports of stuffs, and of 400 per cent. in those of yarn! The Turkish manufactures of muslins, ginghams, handkerchiefs, &c. have suffered severely from this extraordinary importation of British goods; so much so, that of 600 looms for muslins busily employed in Scutari in 1812, only 40 remained in 1831; and of 2,000 weaving establishments in Tournovo, at the former epoch, there were only 200 at the latter! (Urquhart on Turkey, &c. p. 150.) But the great consumption of Turkey consists of coarse home-made fabrics; and we are assured by the very intelligent author now referred to, that this great branch has not been sensibly affected by our imports. Hitherto, indeed, they have been principally intended for the wealthier part of the community; but as cottons are universally worn by the mass of the people, the trade will not attain to any thing like the extent to which it may be carried, till we supply the peasantry with the stuffs suitable for their use. It is creditable to the discernment of the Americans, that they were the first to perceive the superior importance of this class of customers, and to set about supplying them with coarse unbleached stuffs. The Manchester manufacturers immediately followed in the same track, and with signal success. Plain goods now form the half of our investments for Turkey; and it is impossible, seeing the extent to which articles of this sort are made use of in all parts of the empire, and, indeed, of the East, to form any clear idea of what may be the future magnitude of this trade.

Of the European states, Austria and Switzerland have been our most formidable rivals in the supply of Turkey with cottons. The stuffs were, in several respects, well fitted for the Eastern markets; but owing to the difficulty they lay under of getting returns, and the continued and rapid reduction in the price of English cottons, we seem to have gained a decided advantage over them, and are now nearly in the exclusive possession of the market. Cheapness is every where the grand desideratum. Though our muslins and chintzes be still very inferior in fineness to those of the East, and our red dye (a colour in great esteem in Turkey, Persia, &c.) be inferior in brilliancy, these defects are more than balanced by the greater cheapness of our goods; and from Smyrna to Canton, from Madras to Samarcand, we are every where supplanting the native fabrics; and laying the foundations of a commerce that will be eminently beneficial to all parties.

Exclusive of cottons, we exported to Constantinople, Smyrna, and other Turkish ports, in 1831, arms and ammunition of the value of 21,7857.; earthenware, 6,434.; hardware and cutlery, 11,0677.; iron and steel, 50,0951.; refined sugar, 41,020Z.; woollens, to above 18,000.; and some lesser articles; making, with cotton stuffs and yarn, the declared or real value of the direct exports of British produce and manufactures to the whole empire 888,6547., besides those exported to it at second hand from Malta, the Ionian Islands, &c. We also supplied her with a considerable quantity of colonial produce. Our imports from Turkey during the same year, were, wheat 7,383 quarters, currants 8,702 cwt., figs 26,243 cwt., hides 4,685, indigo 4,181 lbs., madder root 23,853 cwt., olive oil 108,193 gallons, opium 8,184 lbs., raisins 100,458 cwt., silk 452,266 lbs., valonia 102,225 cwt., cotton wool 366,550 lbs., with carpets, bullion, galls, sponges, &c.-(Parl. Paper, No. 55. Sess. 1833.)

Our commerce with Turkey would be considerably facilitated by a reduction of the duties on figs, currants, oil, and carpets. Nothing, however, would contribute so much to its extension, as the establishment of order and tranquillity throughout the country. But this, we fear, is beyond the ability of the Ottoman government. The abuses which have reduced the empire to its present state of degradation seem to be inherent in the structure of Turkish society, and to be in harmony with the habits and prejudices of the people. If such be the case, reform must come from without, and not from within. But of whatever other advantages a revolution might be productive, it is

difficult to believe that it would bring along with it a more liberal system of commercial policy than that which at present exists.*

CONSUL, in commerce, an officer appointed by competent authority to reside in foreign countries, in the view of facilitating and extending the commerce carried on between the subjects of the country which appoints him, and those of the country or place in which he is to reside.

Origin and Appointment of Consuls. The office of consul appears to have originated in Italy, about the middle of the twelfth century. Soon after this, the French and other Christian nations trading to the Levant began to stipulate for liberty to appoint consuls to reside in the ports frequented by their ships, that they might watch over the interests of their subjects, and judge and determine such differences with respect to commercial affairs as arose amongst them. The practice was gradually extended to other countries; and in the sixteenth century was generally established all over Europe. — ( Martens, Précis du Droit des Gens, § 147.)

British consuls were formerly appointed by the Crown, upon the recommendation of great trading companies, or of the merchants engaged in the trade with a particular country or place; but they are now directly appointed by government, without requiring any such recommendation, though it, of course, is always attended to when made.

The right of sending consuls to reside in foreign countries depends either upon a tacit or express convention. Hence their powers differ very widely in different states. In some they exercise a very extensive jurisdiction over the subjects of the state which appoints them; but the extent of this jurisdiction is not discretionary, and must, in all cases, be regulated either by an express convention between the state appointing and the state receiving the consul, or by custom. Consuls established in England have no judicial power; and the British government has rarely stipulated with other powers for much judicial authority for its consuls. Turkey, however, is an exception to this remark. English consuls enjoy in that country several peculiar privileges conferred by ancient treaties, and confirmed by that signed at the Dardanelles in 1809. It is there stipulated and agreed upon

"That if there happen any suit, or other difference or dispute, among the English themselves, the decision thereof shall be left to their own ambassador or consul, according to their custom, without the judge or other governors, our slaves, intermeddling therein.

"That if an Englishman, or other subject of that nation, shall be involved in any lawsuit, or other affair connected with law, (with a Turk,) the judge shall not hear nor decide thereon, until the ambas sador, consul, or interpreter shall be present; and all suits exceeding the value of 4,000 aspers, shall be heard at the Sublime Porte, and no where else.

"That the consuls appointed by the English ambassadors in our sacred dominions, for the protection of their merchants, shall never, under any pretence, be imprisoned, nor their houses sealed up, nor themselves sent away; but all suits or differences in which they may be involved, shall be represented to our Sublime Porte, where their ambassador will answer for them.

"That in case any Englishman, or other person subject to that nation, or navigating under its flag, should happen to die in our sacred dominions, our fiscal and other officers shall not, upon pretence of its not being known to whom the property belongs, interpose any opposition or violence, by taking or seizing the effects that may be found at his death, but they shall be delivered up to such Englishman, who ever he may be, to whom the deceased may have left them by his will; and should he have died intestate, then the property shall be delivered up to the English consul, or his representative who may be then present; and in case there be no consul, or consular representative, they shall be registered by the judge, in order to his delivering up the whole thereof, whenever any ship shall be sent by the ambassador to receive the same."

Conformably to these capitulations, and the by-laws of the Levant Company, Nos. 39, 40, and 41., the consuls were authorised to administer justice in all cases of contention amongst British subjects within the Turkish dominions; and they were further authorised to send to England, in safe custody, any British subject resident in Turkey, who should decline their jurisdiction, or appeal from them to the courts of the Grand Signior, or of any other potentate. And the act 6 Geo. 4. c. 33. § 4., for the abolition of the Levant Company, expressly provides for the continuance to the consuls appointed by his Majesty, of the same rights and duties of jurisdiction over British subjects in Turkey, that were enjoyed by the consuls appointed by the Company.

At present, therefore, consuls in Turkey enjoy extensive judicial powers; but owing to the freedom of Turkish commerce, and the simplicity of the regulations under which it is carried on, their other functions, with the exception of furnishing statistical details, none

The treatise of Mr. Urquhart, entitled Turkey and its Resources, to which we are principally indebted for these details, is a work of distinguished talent, discovering throughout an intimate acquaintance with the subjects treated of. At the same time we cannot help differing wholly from Mr. Urquhart in his views as to direct and indirect taxation. We believe that no inconsiderable part of the poverty and degradation of Turkey is to be ascribed to the prevalence of the former, which has every where, and at all periods, been a fruitful source of oppression and misery. The most superficial reader of this work will see that we are no friends to excessive customs duties; but it is to their abuse, and not to the duties themselves, that we object. The duties we impose on brandy, for example, have been carried to such a height as to defeat their object, and to be productive of an immense amount of smuggling and demoralisation. And yet there can be no more proper subject of taxation; nor, provided the duties were reduced to 8s. or 10s. a gallon, is it possible to imagine any less unexceptionable tax. The defects inherent in our system of customs duties might easily be removed, not only without any diminution, but with a large accession, of revenue; but though it were otherwise, we are satisfied that the imposition of direct taxes on property or income would occasion more injury in the course of 4 or 5 years, than the present customs duties, with all their defects, would occasion in half a century.