culture, by far the most extensive and valuable branch of industry in France. It is estimated by the landholders and merchants of the department of the Gironde, in the admirable Pétition et Mémoire à l'Appui, presented by them to the Chamber of Deputies n 1828, that the quantity of wine annually produced in France amounts, at an average, to about 40,000,000 hectolitres, or 1,060,000,000 gallons; that its value is not less than from 800,000,000 to 1,000,000,000 francs, or from 32,000,000l. to 40,000,000l. sterling; and that upwards of three millions of individuals are employed in its production. In some of the southern departments, it is of paramount importance. The population of the Gironde, exclusive of Bordeaux, amounts to 432,839 individuals, of whom no fewer than 226,000 are supposed to be directly engaged in the cultivation of the vine.

Here, then, is a branch of industry in which France has no competitor, which even now affords employment for about a tenth part of her population, and which is susceptible of indefinite extension. The value of the wines, brandies, vinegars, &c. exported from France, at an average of the 3 years ending with 1790, amounted to about 51,000,000 francs, or upwards of two millions sterling. The annual exports of wine from Bordeaux only, exceeded 100,000 tuns; and as the supply of wine might be increased to almost any amount, France has, in this single article, the means of carrying on the most extensive and lucrative commerce. "Le gouvernement Français," says M. Chaptal, in his work Sur l'Industrie Française, “doit les plus grands encouragements à la culture des vignes, soit qu'il considére ses produits relativement à la consommation intérieure, soit qu'il les envisage sous le rapport de notre commerce avec l'étranger, dont il est en effet la base essentielle."

But instead of labouring to extend this great branch of industry, government has consented to sacrifice it to the interests of the iron-founders, and the planters of Martinique and Guadaloupe! We do not, indeed, imagine that they were at all aware that such would be the effect of their policy. Theirs is only one instance, among myriads that may be specified, to prove that ignorance in a ministry is quite as pernicious as bad intentions. The consideration, apparently not a very recondite one, that, notwithstanding the bounty of nature, wine was not gratuitously produced in France, and could not, therefore, be exported except for an equivalent, would seem never to have occurred to the ministers of Louis and Charles X. But those whose interests were at stake, did not fail to apprise them of the hollowness of their system of policy. In 1822, when the project for raising the duties on sugar, iron, linens, &c. was under discussion, the merchants of Bordeaux, Nantes, Marseilles, and other great commercial cities, and the winegrowers of the Gironde, and some other departments, presented petitions to the Chambers, in which they truly stated, that it was a contradiction and an absurdity to attempt selling to the foreigner, without, at the same time, buying from him; and expressed their conviction, that the imposition of the duties in question would be fatal to the commerce of France, and would consequently inflict a very serious injury on the winegrowers and silk manufacturers. These representations did not, however, meet with a very courteous reception. They were stigmatised as the work of ignorant and interested persons. The Chambers approved the policy of ministers; and in their ardour to extend and perfect it, did not hesitate deeply to injure branches of industry on which several millions of persons are dependent, in order that a few comparatively insignificant businesses, nowise suited to France, and supporting 100,000 persons, might be bolstered up and protected!

The event has shown that the anticipations of the merchants were but too well founded. There is a discrepancy in the accounts laid before the late Commission d'Enquête by government, and those given in the above-mentioned Pétition et Mémoire à l'Appui from the Gironde. According to the tables printed by the Commission, the export of wine from France is, at this moment, almost exactly the same as in 1789. It is, however, plain that, had there not been some powerful counteracting cause in operation, the export of wine ought to have been very greatly augmented. The United States, Russia, England, Prussia, and all those countries that have at all times been the great importers of French wines, have made prodigious advances in wealth and population since 1789; and, had the commerce with them not been subjected to injurious restrictions, there is every reason to think that their imports of French wine would have been much greater now than at any former period.

But the truth is, that the accounts laid before the Commission are entitled to extremely little credit. In so far as respects the export of wine from Bordeaux, which has always been the great market for this species of produce, the statements in the Mémoire à l'Appui are taken from the Custom-house returns. Their accuracy may, therefore, be depended upon, and they show an extraordinary falling off. Previously to the Revolution, the exports amounted to 100,000 tuns a year- -(Peuchet, Statistique Elémentaire, p. 138.); but since 1820, they have only been as follows:

Tuns.

Tuns. 59,955,

Tuns.

1824, 39.625,

1823, 51, 29.

1825, 46,314.

Tuns.

It is also stated (Mémoire, p. 33.), that a large proportion of these exports has been made on speculation; and that the markets of Russia, the Netherlands, Hamburgh, &c. are glutted with French wines, for which there is no demand. "Dans ce moment," (25th April, 1828,) it is said in the Mémoire," il existe en consignation, à Hambourg, 12,000 à 15,000 barriques de vin pour compte des propriétaires du département de la Gironde, qui seront trop heureux s'ils ne perdent que leur capital."

This extraordinary decline in the foreign demand has been accompanied by a corresponding glut of the home market, a heavy fall of prices, and the ruin of a great number of merchants and agriculturists. It is estimated, that there were, in April, 1828, no fewer than 600,000 tons of wine in the. Gironde, for which no outlet could be found; and the glut, in the other departments, is said to have been proportionally great. The fall in the price of wine has reacted on the vineyards, most of which have become quite unsaleable; and a total stop has been put to every sort of improvement. Nor have matters been in the least amended during the current year: on the contrary, they seem to be gradually getting worse. Such is the poverty of the proprietors, that wine is now frequently seized, and sold by the revenue officers in payment of arrears of taxes; and it appears, from some late statements in the Mémorial Bordelais (a newspaper published at Bordeaux), that the wine so sold has not recently fetched more, at an average, than about two thirds of the cost of its production!

The following official account of the exports of wine from the Gironde, during the 3 years ending with 1831, sets the extraordinary decline of this important trade in the most striking point of view: ;

Year.

Litres. Imp. Gal. 24,409,604 = 5,370,110

Litres. Imp. Gal. Year. Litres. Imp. Gal. Year. 1829 43,832,064 = 9,643,053 1830 28,551,863 = 6,281,412 1831 The exports of brandy have declined in about the same degree; and the foreign shipping frequenting the port has been diminished nearly a half.

Such are the effects that the restrictive system of policy has had on the wine trade of France, on a branch of industry which, as we have already seen, employs three millions of people. It is satisfactory, however, to observe, that the landowners and merchants are fully aware of the source of the misery in which they have been involved. They know that they are not suffering from hostile or vindictive measures on the part of foreigners, but from the blind and senseless policy of their own government; that they are victims of an attempt to counteract the most obvious principles — to make France produce articles directly at home, which she might obtain from the foreigner in exchange for wine, brandy, &c. at a third or a fourth part of the expense they now cost. cannot export, because they are not allowed to import. Hence they do not ask for bounties and prohibitions; on the contrary, they disclaim all such quack nostrums; and demand what can alone be useful to them, and beneficial to the country,— a free commercial system.

They

"Considéré en lui-même," say the landowners and merchants of the Gironde, "le système prohibitif est la plus deplorable des erreurs. La nature, dans sa variété infinie, a départi à chaque contrée ses attributs particuliers; elle a imprimé sur chaque sol sa véritable destination, et c'est par la diversité des produits et des besoins, qu'elle a voulu unir les hommes par un lien universel, et opérer entre eux ces rapprochements, qui ont produit le commerce et la civilisation.

Quelle est la base du système prohibitif? Une véritable chimère, qui consiste à essayer de vendre à l'étranger sans acheter de lui.

"Quelle est donc la conséquence la plus immédiate du système prohibitif, ou, en d'autres termes, du monopole? C'est que le pays qui est placé sous son empire ne peut vendre ses produits à l'étranger. Le voilà donc refoulé dans lui-même; et à l'impossibilité de vendre ce qu'il a de trop, vient se joindre la nécessité de payer plus cher ce qui lui manque.

"Notre industrie ne demandoit, pour fructifier, ni la faveur d'un monopole, ni cette foule d'artifices et des secours dont bien d'autres ont imposé le fardeau au pays. Une sage liberté commerciale, une économie politique fondée sur la nature, en rapport avec la civilisation, en harmonie avec tous les intérêts véri tables; telle étoit son şeul besoin. Livrée à son essor naturel, elle se seroit étendue d'elle-même sur la France de 1814, comme sur celle de 1789; elle auroit formé la plus riche branche de son agriculture; elle auroit fait circuler, et dans son sol natal, et dans tout le sol du royaume, une sève de vie et de richesse; elle auroit encore attiré sur nos plages le commerce du monde; et la France, au lieu de s'ériger avec effort en pays manufacturier, auroit reconquis, par la force des choses, une supériorité incontestable comme pays agricole.

"Le système contraire a prevalu.

"La ruine d'un des plus importants départements de la France; la détresse des départements circon. voisins; le dépérissement général du Midi; une immense population attaquée dans ses moyens d'exis tence; un capital enorme compromis; la perspective de ne pouvoir prélever l'impôt sur notre sol appauvri et depouillé; un préjudice immense pour tous les départements dont nous somme tributaires; un dé. troissement rapide dans celles de nos consommations qui profitent au Nord; la stagnation générale du commerce, avec tous les désastres qu'elle entraine, toutes les pertes qu'elle produit, et tous les dommages su matériels, ou politiques ou moraux, qui en sont l'inévitable suite; enfin, l'anéantissement de plus en plus irréparable de tous nos anciens rapports commerciaux ; les autres peuples s'enrichissant de nos pertes et développant leur système commercial sur les débris du nôtre;

Tels sont les fruits amers du système dont nous avons été les principales victimes."

Such is the well authenticated account, laid before the Chamber of Deputies by 12,563 landowners and merchants of the Gironde, of the practical operation and real effect of that very system of policy, which, extraordinary as it may seem, has been held up for imitatior to the parliament of England!

The effect of this system upon the silk trade of France, the most important branch

of her manufacturing industry, and one in which she had long the superiority, is similar, and hardly less destructive. Her prohibitions have forced others to manufacture for themselves, so that the foreign demand for silks is rapidly diminishing. It is stated, in Observations addressées à la Commission d'Enquête, by the delegate of the Chamber of Commerce of Lyons, that the silk manufacture is in the worst possible state. "Ce qui doit surtout exciter," he observes, "la sollicitude du gouvernement, et le décider à entrer dans nos vues, c'est l'état déplorable, alarmant, de la fabrique de Lyon : les quatre années de 1824 à 1827 offrent sur les quatre années précédentes un déficit qui excéde 150 mille kilog. pour les seules expéditions d'Allemagne; l'année 1828, et l'année courante, 1829, nous donnent une progression décroissante plus effrayante encore.”. (p. 11.) It is further stated, in a Report by the manufacturers of Lyons, that there were 26,000 looms employed in that city in 1824, while at present there are not more than 15,000. The competition of Switzerland and England has been chiefly instrumental in producing these effects. At Zurich, where there were only 3,000 looms employed in 1815, there were, in 1830, more than 5,000; and at Eberfeld, where there were none in 1815, there were then above 1,000. Switzerland is said to have, in all, 11,000

looms employed at this moment (1833) in the manufacture of plain broad silks. Besides the injury done to the wine trade of France by her anti-commercial system, it has been much injured by the octrois, and other duties laid on wine when used for home consumption. These, however, have been modified since the accession of LouisPhilippe; and it is reasonable to suppose, that the experience that has been afforded of the ruinous effects of the prohibitive system, and the more general diffusion of correct ideas with respect to the real sources of wealth, will at no distant period cause the adoption of such changes in the commercial legislation of France, as may render it more conducive to her interest, and more in accordance with the spirit of the age. It we were hostile to France, we should wish her to continue the present system; but we disclaim being actuated by any such feelings. We are truly anxious for her prosperity, for her sake and our own; for, unless she be surrounded by Bishop Berkeley's wall of brass, whatever contributes to her prosperity must, in some degree, redound to the advantage of her neighbours.

"Were such narrow and malignant politics to meet with success," said Mr. Hume, writing in the middle of the last century, and when the prosperity of others was generally regarded with an evil eye, "we should reduce all our neighbouring nations to the same state of sloth and ignorance that prevails in Morocco and the coast of Barbary. But what would be the consequence? They could send us no commodities; they could take none from us our domestic commerce itself would languish for want of emulation, example, and instruction; and we ourselves should soon fall into the same abject condition to which we had reduced them. I shall, therefore, venture to acknowledge, that not only as a man, but as a British subject, I pray for the flourishing commerce of Germany, Spain, Italy, and even France itself. I am, at least, certain that Great Britain, and all those nations, would flourish more, did their sovereigns and ministers adopt such enlarged and benevolent sentiments towards each other."—(Essay on the Jealousy of Trade.)

For a more ample exposition of the nature and effects of the French commercial system, the reader is referred to an article in the 99th Number of the Edinburgh Review, contributed by the author of this work. Most of the foregoing statements are taken from that article.

BOSTON, a commercial city of the United States, the capital of Massachusetts, and the largest town of New England, in lat. 42° 23′ N., long. 71° 4′ W. Population, in 1830, 62,000. The city is situated on a peninsula near the bottom of a large and deep bay, being surrounded on all sides by water, except on the south, where it is joined to the main land by the narrow isthmus called Boston Neck. But it communicates, by means of extensive wooden bridges, with Charleston on the north side of the bay, and with Dorchester on the south. Boston Bay is of great extent, and is studded with many islands. The plan, on the opposite side, will give a better idea of it than could be derived from any description.

References to Plan. — A, outer light-house, 65 feet high, having a revolving light, alternately brilliant 40 and obscured 20 seconds. B, buoy on the outward edge of the shoal, off Alderton Point. C, D, E, Great, Middle, and Outward Brewster's Islands. F, George's Island. The passage for ships, lying between this island and the rocks on the opposite side of Lovell's Island (G), being very narrow, it is, in effect, the key of the harbour; and large sums have recently been expended on its fortification. To the south of George's Island, and Hospital Island (H), is Nantasket road, where there is good anchorage. The outer harbour lies to the west of Lovell's (G) and George's (F) Islands, being separated from the inner harbour by Castle Island (M), and Governor's Island (N). On the north end of Long Island (I) is a harbour fixed light, 27 feet high. K, Deer Island, L, Spectacle Island. O, Middle Ground, dry at ebb. P, Upper and Middle Ground having, at ebb, only 5 feet water. Thomson's Island. R, Dorchester peninsula. S, Noodle Island. T, Charleston. Governor's Island (), Castle Island (M), and Noodle's Island (S), are all fortified. The course that a ship ought to steer is marked by the dotted line, leading between the light-house and Alderton Point, and between George's Island (F) and Lovell's Island (G). The soundings are laid down in fathoms at low water.

Shipping. According to the official accounts laid before Congress, 15th of February, 1835, the registered, enrolled, and licensed tonnage belonging to Boston in 1831 amounted to 138,174 tons, of which 21,084 tons were employed in the coasting trade, and 17,784 in the fisheries.*

In 1881, there arrived from foreign parts 766 ships, of the burden of 126,980 tons. Of these were, American, 671 ships, tonnage 115,780; and British, 86 ships, tonnage 9,350. With the exception of Sweden, which sent 3, there was not more than 1 ship from any other country! In 1832, the foreign arrivals were 1,064 ships, tonnage not stated: of these, 842 were American, and 211 British.

The arrivals coast wise in 1832 were 3,536; of these were 62 ships, 514 brigs, 2,332 schooners, and 628 sloops. Shipping Charges. For an account of these, see NEW YORK.

How to enter the Port. In coming from the Atlantic, a ship should bring the light-house to bear W. by N. to W. N. W., and run direct for it. The largest ships may pass it at within less than a cable's length. If there be no pilot on board, or the master be unacquainted with the harbour, or the wind be north-westerly, which is the most unfavourable for entering, she had better steer W. by S. for Nantasket roads, where she may anchor, and get a pilot.

Mooring, &c. Generally speaking, there is sufficient depth of water to enable the largest ships to come up to town at all times of the tide. They usually moor alongside quays or wharfs, where they lie in perfect safety. There are in all about 60 wharfs; which, for the most part, are built on piles, with a superstructure of stone and earth. The two principal are " Long Wharf," 550 yards in length; and "Central Wharf," 413 yards long by 50 in breadth, having a range of lofty brick stores and warehouses along its whole length.

Pilotage. No particular place is specified at which vessels must heave to for a pilot. But all vessels, with the exception of coasters under 200 tons, and American vessels laden with plaster of Paris from British America, if hailed by a pilot within about 13 mile of the outer light, must take him on board, under a penalty of 50 dollars. If they have got within this distance before being hailed, the obligation to take a pilot on board ceases. This regulation has obviously been dictated by a wish to have the pilots constantly on the alert; it being supposed that masters not well acquainted with the bay will heave to to take one on board, though they have got within the free limits.

Table of the Rates of Pilotage on Outward and Inward bound Vessels in the Port of Boston.

Careening, Stores, &c.- Boston is a very favourable place for careening and repairing ships. All kinds of supplies may be had of the best quality and at moderate prices.

Customs Revenue. The amount collected at Boston in 1831 was 5,227,592 dollars = 1,176,2087. 4s. -(For an account of the American warehousing system, see NEW YORK.)

Immigration. The number of immigrants arriving at Boston is not great, seldom exceeding 1,600 in a year. A city ordinance directs that the masters of vessels bringing immigrants shall enter into a bond with suretics to the amount of 200 dollars for each immigrant, that he shall not become a charge upon the state for 3 years, or pay a commutation of 5 dollars on account of each individual. But this regulation does not apply to immigrants having a reasonable amount of property; the declaration of the foreign con suls as to this point is commonly acted upon,

Trade of Boston, &c. Boston has a very extensive trade with the southern states and with foreign countries, and is also one of the principal seats of the American fisheries. She is wholly indebted to her southern neighbours, and principally to New York, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, for supplies of flour and wheat, and for large quantities of barley, maize, oatmeal, oats, &c., as well as for cotton, tobacco, staves, rice, &c. Of these, the imports of flour may amount, at an average, to about 400,000 barrels a year; all sorts of grain to about 2,000,000 bushels; cotton, 160,000 bales; staves, 3,000,000, &c. Her returns are made, partly in native raw produce, as beef, pork, lard, &c.; partly and principally in the produce of her manufacturing industry, in which Massachusetts is decidedly superior to every other state in the Union; and partly in the produce of her fisheries and foreign trade. At an average, Boston annually sends to the southern ports of the Union about 45,000 barrels of beef and pork; 165,000 barrels of mackarel, herrings, alewives, &c.; 20,000 quintals of dried and smoked fish; 3,500,000 pairs of boots and shoes; 600,000 bundles of paper; besides a very large amount of cotton and woollen manufactured goods, nails, furniture, cordage, &c.; so as to leave a large balance in her favour. Her exports of native produce to foreign countries consist principally of the same articles she sends to the southern states; but she also exports a large amount of the foreign produce she had previously imported. The imports from abroad consist principally of cotton and woollen goods; linens, canvas, &c.; hardware, silks, sugar, tea, coffee, wines and brandy, spices, hides,

By comparing this return with that for 1828, given in the former edition of this work, there would appear to have been a considerable falling off in the interim in the amount of shipping; this however, is not really the case. For an explanation of the discrepancy, see art. NEW YORK.