even threatened Angostura, the seat of the Columbian Congress. Bolivar, considering New Granada as the most urgent quarter, hastened back thither, and soon obliged the royalist corps to retire before him. He now determined to push down upon Santa Martha and Carthagena, and to press the siege of these places, which he entrusted to his Lieutenant Urdaneta. He expected to be assisted by a corps of about 900 Irish troops, which, under General Devereux, had captured the island of Margarita, and were coming round by sea to the same points. This expedition accordingly landed at La Hacha, which was evacuated at their approach. Here, however, the Irish, who had hitherto met with nothing but hardship and hard-fighting, mutinied, and refused to proceed farther, until they received their pay. As the Spanish commander could give nothing but promises, they plundered the city; and though they afterwards promised to proceed against Santa Martha by sea, their whole conduct was so disorderly, that the Spaniards rather chose to throw them on shore at Jamaica, leaving them to reach home in that miserable plight, which their circumstances admitted. The other English corps in the Columbian service, though they too had received no pay, and little clothing, but abundance of wounds and hardships, remained faithful, and testified their indignation at this conduct of their countrymen.

At this moment Morillo, at Caraccas, received the tidings of the revolution in Spain, with instructions to make the most ample conciliatory of fers to the independent government. He immediately dispatched an embassy to the Congress at Angostura, with a letter couched in the most courteous terms, and in which he even addressed them by the title of " Serene Highnesses." He offered the con

firmation of the existing authorities, and even the continuation of the independent chiefs for an indefinite time, in the commands which they now held. This first courtesy from one who had waged so bloody and exterminating a warfare, was well received, and the deputies were treated with every attention. After two or three days' deliberation, however, the reply was given, that the Congress desired the re-establishment of peace, and would listen with pleasure to the propositions which might be made by the Spanish government, provided these had for their basis a recognition of the sovereignty and independence of Columbia. As this declaration amounted to an entire rejection of the Spanish proposals, it was immediately followed by a manifesto, addressed to the nation, in which all the wrongs suffered from Spain were enumerated; the cruelties of Morillo and the other generals; and above all, the imperfect representation granted by the Cortes of Cadiz. It concluded, that nothing short of entire independence could satisfy three millions of men, who had made so many sacrifices in order to attain it.

After this failure, the war recommenced with greater fury than before. The independent generals, however, were baffled, with some loss, in their attempts to reduce Santa Martha and Carthagena. Having then, however, directed their efforts against Caraccas, they met with important successes. General La Torre was completely defeated, and obliged to fall back upon the capital. A corps under Morales was routed near Calabozo, and the advanced guards of the Columbian army were pushed to within twenty leagues of Caraccas. Meantime propositions had been made for an armistice, and a Congress for negociating it had been opened at St Fernando on the Apure. Bolivar at

first insisted upon the cession of Maracaybo, Santa Martha, and Rio de la Hacha, as the price of the armistice; but having sustained a check at Tocuyo, he finally agreed to one upon the basis of each army retaining its actual positions. Morillo then, sick apparently of this unfortunate war, set out for the mother country, leaving the army under the command of General La Torre.

This transaction was of important benefit to the cause of independence. It gave to the government of Columbia a stable and recognized character, as well as an opinion of strength, which gained over to it the wavering party, particularly among the Creoles. At the same time, it afforded to Bolivar the opportunity of repairing his losses, of re-organizing his troops, and commencing the next campaign with every assurance of success.

In the great states of Mexico and and Peru, which still adhered to Spain, the tidings of the revolution, though reluctantly announced by those immediately in power, were joyfully hailed by the body of the people. Probably, however, the agitation which they excited, and the triumph which they gave to the popular interest, tended still farther to loosen the ties by which these colonies were united to the mother country, and to hasten the period when they were to be finally broken.

The only quarter from which Peru had any thing immediately to apprehend, was Chili. This country, now entirely fixed in the cause of independence, not only possessed the strength of its own hardy population, but was aided by the naval talents of Lord Cochrane, and by a body of English seamen, whom his fame and influence had attracted. The first enterprize of the year was, the capture of Valdivia, the only fortress of Chili which yet remained in the hands

of the Spaniards. It was effected by Lord Cochrane in the most daring manner. He landed at night with two small vessels, having 320 men on board, and carried by storm one of the fifteen small forts by which it was defended. The governor, struck with dismay, though he had a garrison superior in number to the assailants, evacuated the place next morning, leaving behind all its supplies and ammunition.

The combined forces were now ready to carry into effect their projected expedition against Lima. Lord Cochrane had collected eight ships of war, of different sizes, carrying 236 pieces of cannon, and 1538 men, with 14 transports; while San Martin, the Chilese general, was at the head of an army of about 4000 men. the 26th August, the army completed its embarkation at Coquimbo, and on the 8th September arrived at Pisco, where they were within 150 miles of Lima. The governor of Pisco evacuated the place on their approach.

On

By the time that intelligence of this disembarkation had arrived at Lima, the government had received instructions from the new government of Spain. In pursuance of these, the Viceroy Pezuela sent a deputy to propose an armistice for the adjustment of the differences with the mother country. The armistice was agreed to on the 25th September ; but the conferences had scarcely opened when it appeared, that the views of the two parties were utterly irreconcileable. The expeditionary general soon declared his resolution to accept of nothing short of entire independence. On the 14th of October the armistice was declared at an end, and the war was renewed.

The independent party derived very considerable hopes from the defec tion of Guayaquil, a large sea port, si

tuated at the most northern extremity of Peru. At midnight, after a ball, in which all the principal inhabitants had been assembled, the conspirators hastened to the quarters of the principal civil and military officers, and put them under arrest. Next day independence was proclaimed, and a new government appointed. The governor Viverro, with his principal officers, were conveyed by a squadron to San Martin, at Pisco.

Notwithstanding this defection, the governor of Peru did not lose courage. No revolutionary tendency manifested itself at Lima; and he had under his command 10,000 or 12,000 men, well armed and disciplined. The independents, accordingly, were unable, during the rest of this year, to make any impression upon Lima. The only event of any consequence, was the capture, by Lord Cochrane, of the Esmeralda, of 40 guns, after an obstinate combat under the batteries of Callao.

Buenos Ayres, during the whole of this period, was plunged in a chaos of revolutions, of which we need only give a hasty sketch. Two factions chiefly divided this unfortunate country. One wished a constitutional monarchy, at the head of which they would have placed an Infant of Portugal; or, according to the idea of some, even one of the French Bourbons.

This party was favoured by the principal inhabitants of Buenos Ayres, who expected, that under this plan, their city would continue to be the seat of government. Puyerredon, who, under the title of Supreme Director, held sway over the city and neighbourhood, was understood to support this party, and was thus closely allied with Portugal. The other plan was that of a federative republic, composed of the nine provinces, into which the vice-royalty of La Plata was divided; according to which

VOL. XIII. PART I.

scheme, the central Congress was to meet at Tucuman. This party, though it formed a minority at Buenos Ayres, was a favourite in the provinces, where it was supported by a powerful body of troops, under the command of Artigas. On the 1st February, an engagement took place at Cepeda, between this army and that of Buenos Ayres, under General Rondeau, in which the latter was totally routed. The federal army immediately marched upon Buenos Ayres, which it entered without resistance, Puyerredon seeking refuge at Monte Video. Sarratea, a decided federal, was appointed governor, and a treaty was drawn up, by which the whole vice-royalty was formed into a confederation. The

federals, however, in consequence of a violent system of proscription against their enemies, and of the war which they were preparing against Fortugal, became highly unpopular. Their army, therefore, having retired, Don Carlos Alvear, who had been governor in 1815, introduced himself into the place, and uniting his own friends with those of Puyerredon, drove out Sarratea, and procured the nomination of Balcarce as governor and captain-general. Sarratea, however, having repaired to the federal headquarters, that army immediately put itself in motion, re-entered Buenos Ayres without opposition, and replaced affairs in their former state. Sarratea, however, was so unpopular, that in the course of six weeks he was obliged to yield the command to General Soler. Alvear, meantime, collected a body of troops, with which he totally defeated Soler, and advanced to Buenos Ayres, but was there repulsed; and being soon after attacked at St Nicholas, his army was totally defeated and dispersed. Hereupon appeared a new character, Don Martin Rodriguez, who, having been a conspicuous instrument in gaining

X

this victory, was saluted governor and captain-general. He was soon after, however, suspected as an adherent of Puyerredon, and obliged to quit the city; but collecting fresh forces, he attacked and carried the place by storm on the 25th of October. During the rest of the year he remained in it as a species of military dictator, Meantime a civil war broke out between Artigas and Ramirez, the two chiefs of the federal army.

In the midst of these convulsions, the intelligence of the Spanish revolution, and the consequent overtures, were communicated at Buenos Ayres. It might have been supposed, that any thing would be welcome which could bring repose amid such calamitous agitations. Such, probably, was the feeling among many of the people; but the chiefs who each hoped, amid this wild confusion, to reach the summit of power, hastily rejected every proposal. A recognition of the independence of the republic being demanded as the basis of any treaty, the deputies were obliged to return.

The revolution did not yet extend its influence to Brazil. Only a slight effervescence was observed among the troops. No serious movement took place, unless in the northern province of Pernambuco, where there was an insurrection, which seems, however, to have been chiefly excited by discontent at the conduct of the local authorities. The governor, Don Louis O'Rego, collected a few battalions, beat the insurgents at Bonito, and suppressed the insurrection. A number of prisoners were taken, on whom punishment was inflicted with great severity.

The course of public affairs in the United States, was this year remarkably smooth and tranquil. That fierce collision of parties, which had agitated the republic, during the continu

ance of war in Europe, seemed to have entirely subsided. Even the election of a President, which fell to be made in the course of the year, did not give occasion to any eager conflict. Mr Monroe was re-elected for four years by a great majority.

The chief question which occupied the attention of Congress, regarded the admission into the Union of the Missouri State, which, in the rapid western progress of civilization, had been established in the deep interior of North America, beyond the Mississippi. The only question which excited any doubt was, whether negro slavery should be permitted to subsist in this new State. Its prohibition, entered as a clause into the bill on the subject, was introduced into the House of Representatives. The Senate, however, were averse to it, and desirous still to gratify the Missourins in their wish to retain for their country the benefits of negro bondage. With this view, they changed the above clause into one, by which slavery was abolished in Louisiana, and in all the territory to the 36th degree of the latitude. The amended act being then carried down to the Representatives, at a time when many of the members were absent, it was not perceived, that, the Missouri being beyond the prescribed line, the new clause entirely negatived that which they had introduced. The bill was therefore passed, granting to the new State all the privileges of which it was ambitious. The provincial legislature was even deprived of the power of emancipating any slaves, without the consent of their masters, and without paying them the value; also of preventing slaves from being introduced from other parts of the Union, unless it were as an object of speculation. In other respects, the constitution of the Missouri did not

differ from that of the older States.

The condition of the finances occupied a considerable part of the attention of Congress. According to a report published in April 1820, the ways and means amounted in 1819 to 24,812,419 dollars, (about 5,582,0001.) while the expenditure had been only 24,044,568; so that there remained in the treasury 767,811. The present year made a less favourable promise. The falling off in the receipts was such, that a deficit might be expected of nearly four millions of dollars. The financial men of the United States directed their attention to find out the cause of this diminution, but, as seems to us, with very little success. They found it in the scarcity of specie occasioned by a supposed unfavourable balance of trade. The custom-house books, it seems, somehow exhibited, during the four last years, a value of imports equal to 391 millions of dollars, while the exports amounted only to 290 millions. Hence it was sagely inferred, that the difference of 101 millions (upwards of 22,000,000l. sterling) must have been paid in hard cash, so that it appeared miraculous that there should be a dollar remaining within the circuit of the Union. To vanquish this chimera of an unfavourable balance, several statesmen did not hesitate to propose, that the imports should be limited to 50 millions-never reflecting that the exports must be reduced equally, unless the American merchants chose to make a present of their goods to foreign states, which would not be a very effective mode of increasing their wealth. Happily the Senate declined entering into this suicidal project, and contented themselves with passing some minor restrictive regulations, and particularly with doubling the duty on French shipping, now raised to 18 dollars a-ton. Even this, upon the representation of the

French government, was afterwards mitigated.

Considerable irritation was excited in America, by the long delay of the Spanish court in ratifying the treaty for the cession of the Floridas. A resolution had even been formed, to take possession of them by force of arms, and an expedition prepared for that purpose. The interposition of Russia and France arrested this step, and the desired ratification was at length obtained from Spain, on the 24th October.

The Session of Congress closed on the 15th May, and a new one opened on the 14th November, the proceedings of which we shall present in one view in our next volume.

St Domingo was this year the theatre of a revolution not unworthy of notice. This island, after having exhibited the wildest excesses of revolu tionary frenzy, now presented a spectacle new in the annals of mankinda negro community, organized on the model of civilized and European states. After the death of Dessalines, it was split into two members, one of which, under the presidency of Pethion, established at Port-au-Prince, preserved the form of a republic; another, at Cape Francois, was subject to Christophe, who assumed the title of Emperor, filled his court with dukes, counts, and orders, after the model of Napoleon, and exercised a sway entirely despotic. He used great exertions to introduce European arts and improvements; formed schools upon the Lancastrian system, and substituted the English language for the French. Yet his sway was tyrannical. He had appropriated to himself nearly all the lands of the state, and drew from them a very large revenue, which he employed chiefly in accumulation. The fear of rebellion prompted him to continual acts of