Trade Union Act of 1871; 34 and 35 Victoria, c. 31, par. 445. Report to parliament of a committee on trade unions. Letters of Right Hon. John Bright, pp. 224-225; ed. by 288. READINGS IN ENGLISH HISTORY CHAPTER I THE GEOGRAPHY OF ENGLAND I. ACCOUNTS BY ANCIENT GEOGRAPHICAL OBSERVERS The location, the shape, the surface, the climate, and the natural productions of England having remained much the same in all ages are no better described in early writers than in those of the present day. Indeed, their opportunities for observation and their scientific training in geography were so much less, that it is to modern, not to ancient, authors that we must look for accurate and full descriptions. Nevertheless, it is a matter of interest to see what was the geographical knowledge concerning England of those who lived when its history was opening. Its most prominent features were noticed and described by the earliest travelers that reached Britain from the continent. Its island character, its triangular shape, its long days in summer and long nights in winter, its high tides, its forests, its productions of tin, grain, and cattle, are mentioned by one after another of the Greek and Roman writers to whom it seemed a distant and strange land, - almost another continent. 1. Cæsar's of Britain Julius Cæsar, who began to make inquiries about Britain in the summer of 55 B.C., and visited it for the first time in the fall of that year, describes several of these characteristics, though he saw only its southeastern portion, and makes many mistakes. The island is triangular in form, one side facing Gaul. Of description this side one angle, which is in Kent, where almost all the ships land from Gaul, looks toward the east; the lower angle of this same side lies towards the south. Its length is about five hundred miles. The second side of the triangle faces Spain and the west. On this side lies Ireland, an island, as is thought, only half as large as Britain, but separated from it by a distance as great as that of Britain from Gaul. Midway between the two there is an island which is called Mona. Many other islands as well are supposed to lie opposite this coast; concerning these some say that at the time of the winter solstice there is night continuously for thirty days. We found none of these things on inquiry, except we discovered by exact measurement of the water clock that the nights were longer than ours on the continent. The length of this side according to their opinion is 700 miles. The third side of the triangle faces the north. No land is directly opposite, but the angle of this side points towards Germany. This is thought to be 800 miles in length. Thus the entire island is in circumference 2000 miles. 2. Account Siculus Diodorus Siculus, a Greek traveler and historian, was born in Sicily, but lived many years at Rome. He wrote in Greek, about ten years after Cæsar's invasion of Britain, and gives an interesting account of the production of tin in Britain and its export to the continent. Opposite that part of Gaul which borders on the ocean, by Diodorus and directly across from the Hercynian forests, reported to be the largest in Europe, lie many islands. The largest of these is called Britain. In early times this remained free from Britain foreign influence; for neither Bacchus nor Hercules nor any of the other heroes or mighty men, so far as we know, waged war with it. In our time, indeed, Caius Cæsar, who has obtained the name of a god because of his great deeds, became the first one of all those whose memory is preserved to reduce the island to subjection, and to force the conquered Britons to pay a fixed tribute. These things will be recounted in detail in their own place; at this time we shall speak a few words about the island and the tin taken from it. It is triangu- The shape lar in shape, the same as Sicily, but its sides are unequal. Since and size of it extends obliquely from Europe the headland next the continent, which they call Cantium, is only about one hundred stadia from the mainland, at which place a strait runs between. A second angle, Belerium by name, is four days' sail from the continent. The last, called Orca, is said to project out into the sea. The shortest side faces Europe and measures 7500 stadia; the second, extending from the channel to the extreme north, is said to be 15,000 stadia in length; while the last side measures 20,000 stadia; so the entire circumference of the island is 42,500 stadia. They allege that the residents are the original inhabitants who still retain their primitive manners and customs. For in their battles they use chariots in the same manner as it is reported the ancient Greek heroes fought in the Trojan War. They live in small huts usually built of reeds or wood. When they have reaped their grain they store the ears cut from the stalk in underground storehouses. From thence they take as much of the oldest as will be needed for the day, and after grinding it they prepare their food from it. Their customs are simple, being far removed from the craftiness and wickedness of our time. They are content with frugal fare and do not have the desires which come with riches. The island has a large population, and has a cold climate, since it stretches so far to the north, lying directly under the Great Bear. Many kings and chieftains rule there, usually keeping peace among themselves. Concerning their institutions, and other things peculiar to The producthe island, we shall speak specially when we come to the expedition of Cæsar into Britain. At this time we shall treat of tion of tin 3. Description by Tacitus the tin which is dug from the ground. Those who dwell near ... By the time of Tacitus, who wrote the following account of Britain about A.D. 100, the island was quite familiar to the Romans, and he is therefore more interested in describing its distant parts, those now known as Scotland, which had but recently been explored. He still repeats the mistaken belief of all the ancients that Spain extended so far to the north that it lay to the west of Britain. It is evident that but few voyages could have been made by sea all the way from the Mediterranean to Britain or this mistake would have been corrected. Since the geography and the peoples of Britain have been already treated by many writers, I shall speak, not with the idea of vying with these authors in art or genius, but because it was at this time first thoroughly subdued. Those things which former writers, not fully comprehending, embellished with their eloquence, will be set down with historical accuracy. Britain, the largest of the islands known to the Romans, as regards its geographical situation, on the east faces Germany, on the west Spain, and is even visible on the south to the |