the 16th century, which shows the arrangement of the oars in triplets very plainly.

The following cut has been sketched from an engraving of a picture by Domenico Tintoretto in the Doge's palace, representing, I believe, the same action as Spinello's fresco, but with the costume and construction of a later date. It shows however, very plainly, the projecting opera-morta, and the arrangement of the oars in fours, issuing through row-ports in high bulwarks.

28. Midships in the medieval galley a castle was erected, of the width of the ship, and some 20 feet in length; its platform being elevated sufficiently to allow of free passage under it and over the benches. At the bow was the battery, consisting of mangonels (see vol. ii. pp. 121, seqq.) and great cross-bows with winding gear, whilst

Fighting arrange

ments.

*To these Casoni adds Sifoni for discharging Greek fire; but this he seems to take from the Greek treatise of the Emperor Leo. Though I have introduced it in the cut at p. lxxvii, I doubt if there is evidence of its use by the Italians in the thirteenth century. Joinville describes it like something strange and new.

Great beams, hung like battering rams, are mentioned by Sanuto, as well as iron crow's-feet with fire attached, to shoot among the rigging, and jars of quicklime and soft soap to fling in the eyes of the enemy. The lime is said to have been used by Doria against the Venetians at Curzola (infra, p. lxxvi), and seems to have been a usual provision. Francesco Barberini specifies among the stores for his galley:-" Calcina, con lancioni, Pece, pietre, e ronconi" (p. 259). And Christine de Pisan, in her Faiz du Sage Roy Charles (V. of France) explains also

there were shot ports for smaller cross-bows along the gunnels in the intervals between the benches. Some of the larger galleys had openings to admit horses at the stern, which were closed and caulked for the voyage, being under water when the vessel was at sea. †

It seems to have been a very usual piece of tactics, in attacking as well as in awaiting attack, to connect a large number of galleys by hawsers, and sometimes also to link the oars together, so as to render it difficult for the enemy to break the line or run aboard. We find this practised by the Genoese on the defensive at the battle of Ayas (infra, p. lxxi), and it is constantly resorted to by the Catalans in the battles described by Ramon de Muntaner.‡

Sanuto says the toil of rowing in the galleys was excessive, almost unendurable. Yet it seems to have been performed by freely-enlisted men, and therefore it was probably less severe than that of the great-oared galleys of more recent times, which it was found impracticable to work by free enlistment, or otherwise than by slaves under the most cruel driving. § I am not well enough read to say that war-galleys were never rowed by slaves in the Middle Ages, but the only doubtful allusion to such a class that I have met with is in one passage of Muntaner, where he says, describing the Neapolitan and Catalan fleets drawing together for action, that the gangs of the galleys had to toil like "forçats" (p. 313). Indeed, as regards Venice at least, convict rowers are stated to have been first introduced in 1549, previous to which the gangs were of galeotti assoldati.||

29. We have already mentioned that Sanuto requires for his three-banked galley a ship's company of 250 men. They are distributed as follows :—

Crew of a
Galley and
Staff of a
Fleet.

the use of the soap: Item, on doit avoir plusieurs vaisseaulx legiers à rompre, comme poz plains de chaulx ou poudre, et gecter dedens; et par ce seront comme avuglez au brisier des poz. Item, on doit avoir autres poz de mol savon et gecter es nefs des adversaires, et quant les vaisseaulx brisent, le savon est glissant, si ne se peuent en piez sous tenir, et chiéent en l'eaue" (pt. ii. ch. 38).

**Balistaria, whence no doubt our Balustrade. Wedgwood's etymology is far

fetched.

↑ Sanuto, p. 53; Joinville, p. 40; Muntaner, 316, 403.

See pp. 270, 288, 324, and especially 346.

§ See the Protestant, cited above, pp. 441, et seqq. Venezia e le sue Lagune, ii. 52.

This does not include the Sopracomito, or Gentleman-Commander, who was expected to be valens homo et probus, a soldier and a gentleman, fit to be consulted on occasion by the captain-general. In the Venetian fleet he was generally a noble. †

The aggregate pay of such a crew, not including the sopracomito, amounted monthly to 60 lire de' grossi, or 600 florins, equivalent to 280l. at modern gold value; and the cost for a year to nearly 3160l., exclusive of the victualling of the vessel and the pay of the gentleman-commander. The build or purchase of a galley complete is estimated by the same author at 15,000 florins, or 7012/

We see that war cost a good deal in money even then.

Besides the ship's own complement Sanuto gives an estimate for the general staff of a fleet of 60 galleys. This consists of a captain-general, two (vice) admirals, and the following:

6 Probi homines, or gentlemen of character, forming a council to the Captain-General;

Commissaries of Stores ;

2 Commissaries over the Arms;

3 Physicians;

3 Surgeons ;

5 Master Engineers and Carpenters;

15 Master Smiths;

12 Master Fletchers;

5 Cuirass men and Helmet-makers; 15 Oar-makers and Shaft-makers;

IO Stone-cutters for stone shot;
10 Master Arblast-makers;

20 Musicians;

20 Orderlies, &c.

30. The musicians formed an important part of the equipment. Sanuto says that in going into action every vessel should make the greatest possible display of colours; gonfalons and broad banners should float from stem to stern, and gay pennons all along the bulwarks; whilst it was impossible to have too much of noisy music, of pipes,

Music; and other particulars.

*Mar. Sanuto, p. 75.

+ Ibid. p. 30.

trumpets, kettle-drums, and what not, to put heart into the crew and strike fear into the enemy."

*

So Joinville, in a glorious passage, describes the galley of his kinsman, the Count of Jaffa, at the landing of St. Lewis in Egypt :—

"That galley made the most gallant figure of them all, for it was painted all over, above water and below, with scutcheons of the count's arms, the field of which was or with a cross patée gules.† He had a good 300 rowers in his galley, and every man of them had a target blazoned with his arms in beaten gold. And, as they came on, the galley looked to be some flying creature, with such spirit did the rowers spin it along or rather, with the rustle of its flags, and the roar of its nacaires and drums and Saracen horns, you might have taken it for a rushing bolt of heaven."

;

The galleys, which were very low in the water,§ could not keep the sea in rough weather, and in winter they never willingly kept the sea at night, however fair the weather might be. Yet Sanuto mentions that he had been with armed galleys to Sluys in Flanders.

I will mention two more particulars before concluding this digression. When captured galleys were towed into port it was stern foremost, and with their colours dragging on the surface of the sea. || And the custom of saluting at sunset (probably by music) was in vogue on board the galleys of the 13th century.¶

We shall now sketch the circumstances that led to the appearance of our Traveller in the command of a war-galley.

The Catalan Admiral Roger de Loria, advancing at daybreak to attack the Provençal Fleet of Charles of Naples (1283) in the harbour of Malta, did a thing which should be reckoned to him rather as an act of madness," says Muntaner," than of reason. He said, 'God forbid that I should attack them, all asleep as they are! Let the trumpets and nacaires sound to awaken them, and I will tarry till they be ready for action. No man shall have it to say, if I beat them, that it was by catching them asleep.' (Munt. p. 287.)

† A cross patée, is one with the extremities broadened out into feet as it were. + Page 50.

§ The galley at p. lxxvii is somewhat too high; and I believe it should have had no shrouds.

|| See Muntaner, passim, e.g. 271, 286, 315, 349.

¶ Ibid. 346.

VI. THE JEALOUSIES AND NAVAL WARS OF VENICE AND GENOA. LAMBA DORIA'S EXPEDITION TO THE ADRIATIC; BATTLE OF CURZOLA; AND IMPRISONMENT OF MARCO POLO BY THE GENOESE.

31. Jealousies, too characteristic of the Italian communities, were, in the case of the three great trading republics of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, aggravated by commercial rivalries, whilst, between the two first of those states, and also between the two last, the Republics. bitterness of such feelings had been augmenting during the whole course of the 13th century.*

Growing jealousies and outbreaks between the

The brilliant part played by Venice in the conquest of Constantinople (1204), and the preponderance she thus acquired on the Greek shores, stimulated her arrogance and the resentment of her rivals. The three states no longer stood on a level as bidders for the shifting favour of the Emperor of the East. By treaty, not only was Venice established as the most important ally of the empire and as mistress of a large fraction of its territory, but all members of nations at war with her were prohibited from entering its limits. Though the Genoese colonies continued to exist, they stood at a great disadvantage, where their rivals were so predominant and enjoyed exemption from duties, to which the Genoese remained subject. Hence jealousies and resentments reached a climax in the Levantine settlements, and this colonial exacerbation re-acted on the mother States.

A dispute which broke out at Acre in 1255 came to a head in a war which lasted for years, and was felt all over Syria. It began in a quarrel about a very old church called St. Sabba's, which stood on the common boundary of the Venetian and Genoese estates in Acre,† and this flame was blown by other unlucky occurrences. Acre suffered grievously. ‡ Venice

P. xli.

* In this part of these notices I am repeatedly indebted to Heyd; see supra, † On or close to the Hill called Monjoie; see the plan from Marino Sanuto at P. 17. "Throughout that year there were not less than 40 machines all at work upon the city of Acre, battering its houses and its towers, and smashing and overthrowing everything within their range. There were at least ten of those engines that shot stones so big and heavy that they weighed a good 1500 lbs. by