(2), to a village near Maiman, in the old country of the tribe; (3), to a tribe and district of Dashtistan, 38 farsakhs west of Shiraz.

With reference to the form in the text, Soncara, I may notice that in two passages of the Masálak-ul-Absár, translated by Quatremère, the name occurs as Shankárah. (Q. R. p. 380, 440 seqq.; N. et E. XIII. ; Ilch. I. 71 and passim; Ouseley's Travels, II. 158 seqq.)

VIII. TUN-O-ĶAIN, the eastern Kuhistán or Hill country of Persia, of which Tún and Káin are chief cities. The practice of indicating a locality by combining two names in this way is common in the East. Elsewhere in this book we find Ariora-Keshemur and Kes-macoran (KijMakrán). Upper Sind is often called in India by the Sepoys RoriBakkar, from two adjoining places on the Indus; whilst in former days. Lower Sind was often called Diul-Sind. Karra-Mánikpúr, Uch-Multán, Kunduz-Baghlán are other examples.

The exact expression Tún-o-Kain for the province here in question is used by Baber, and probably also by some of Hammer's authorities, judging from his mode of expression. (Baber, p. 204; see Пlch. II. 190; I. 95, 104, and Hist. de l'Ordre des Assassins, p. 245.)

I may note that the identification of Suolstan is due to Quatremère (see N. et E. XIII. i. circa p. 332); that of Soncara to Defréméry (J. As. ser. 4, tom. xi. p. 441); and that of Tunocain to M. Pauthier. It is one of the latter's happiest contributions to the elucidation of Polo.* I may add that the Lúrs, the Shúls, and the Shabankáras are the subjects of three successive sections in the Masálak-al-Absár of Shahábuddin Dimishki, a work which reflects much of Polo's geography (see N. et E. XIII. i. 330-333).

NOTE 2.-The horses exported to India, of which we shall hear more hereafter, were probably the same class of "Gulf Arabs" that are now carried thither. But the Turkman horses of Persia are also very valuable, especially for endurance. Kinneir speaks of one accomplishing 900 miles in 11 days, and Ferrier states a still more extraordinary feat from his own knowledge. In that case one of those horses went from Tehran to Tabriz, returned, and went again to Tabriz, within 12 days, including two days' rest. The total distance is about 1100 miles.

The livre tournois at this period was equivalent to a little over 18 francs of modern French silver. But in bringing the value to our modern gold standard we must add one-third, as the ratio of silver to gold was then I 12 instead of 1:16. Hence the equivalent in gold of the livre tournois is very little less than 17. sterling, and the price of the horse would be about 1937. The Encyc. Britann., article "Money," gives the livre tournois of this period as 18'17 francs. A French paper in Notes and Queries (4th S. IV. 485) gives it under St. Lewis and

The same explanation was given in a note kindly sent for my use from Tabriz by Consul-General Abbott, evidently without having seen M. Pauthier's work.

Philip III. as equivalent to 18:24 fr., and under Philip IV. to 17'95. And lastly, experiment at the British Museum, made by the kind intervention of my friend Mr. Thomas, gave the weights of the sols of St. Lewis (1226-1270) and Philip IV. (1285-1314) respectively as 63 grains and 61 grains of remarkably pure silver. These trials would give the livres (20 sols) as equivalent to 18:14 fr. and 1770 fr. respectively.

Mr. Wright quotes an ordinance of Philip III. of France (1270-1285) fixing the maximum price that might be given for a palfrey at 60 livres tournois, and for a squire's roncin at 20 livres. Joinville, however, speaks of a couple of horses presented to St. Lewis in 1254 by the Abbot of Cluny, which he says would at the time of his writing (1309) have been worth 500 livres (the pair, it would seem). Hence it may be concluded in a general way that the ordinary price of imported horses in India approached that of the highest class of horses in Europe. (Hist. of Dom. Manners, p. 317; Joinville, p. 205.)

Twenty years ago a very fair Arab could be purchased in Bombay for 6ol. or even less, but prices are much higher now.

With regard to the donkeys, according to Tavernier the fine ones used by merchants in Persia were imported from Arabia. The mark of silver was equivalent to about 44s. of our silver money, and allowing as before for the lower relative value of gold, 30 marks would be equivalent to 88%. sterling.

Kisi or Kish we have already heard of. Curmosa is Hormuz, of which we shall hear more. With a Pisan, as Rusticiano was, the sound of c is purely and strongly aspirate. Giovanni d'Empoli, in the beginning of the 16th century, another Tuscan, also calls it Cormus (see Archiv. Stor. Ital. Append. III. 81).

NOTE 3. The character of the nomade and semi-nomade tribes of Persia in those days-Kurds, Lurs, Shuls, Karaunas, &c.—probably deserved all that Polo says, and it is not changed now. Take as an example Rawlinson's account of the Bakhtiyaris of Luristán: “I believe them to be individually brave, but of a cruel and savage character; they pursue their blood feuds with the most inveterate and exterminating spirit. . . . It is proverbial in Persia that the Bakhtiyaris have been compelled to forego altogether the reading of the Fatihah or prayer for the dead, for otherwise they would have no other occupation. They are also most dextrous and notorious thieves." (J. R. G. S. IX. 105.)

NOTE 4.-The Persians have always been lax in regard to the abstinence from wine.

In the preparation of some of the sweet wines of the Levant, such as that of Cyprus, the must is boiled, but I believe this is not the case generally in the East. Baber notices it as a peculiarity among the Kafirs of the Hindu Kush. Tavernier, however, says that at Shiraz, besides the wine for which that city was so celebrated, a good deal of boiled wine was manufactured, and used among the poor and by tra

vellers. No doubt what is meant is the sweet liquor or syrup called Dushab, which Della Valle says is just the Italian Mostocotto, but better, clearer, and not so mawkish (I. 689). (Baber, p. 145; Tavernier, Book V. ch. xxi.)

CHAPTER XVI.

CONCERNING THE GREAT CITY OF YASDI.

YASDI also is properly in Persia; it is a good and noble city, and has a great amount of trade. They weave there quantities of a certain silk tissue known as Yasdi, which merchants carry into many quarters to dispose of. The people are worshippers of Mahommet.'

When you leave this city to travel further, you ride for seven days over great plains, finding cover to receive you at three places only. There are many fine woods [producing dates] upon the way, such as one can easily ride through; and in them there is great sport to be had in hunting and hawking, there being partridges and quails and abundance of other game, so that the merchants who pass that way have plenty of diversion. There are also wild asses, handsome creatures. At the end of those seven marches over the plain you come to a fine kingdom which is called Kerman.'

NOTE 1.-YEZD, an ancient city, supposed by D'Anville to be the Isatichae of Ptolemy, is not called by Marco a kingdom, though having a better title to the distinction than some which he classes as such. The atabegs of Yezd dated from the middle of the 11th century, and their dynasty was permitted by the Mongols to continue till the end of the 13th, when it was extinguished by Ghazan, and the administration made over to the Mongol Dewan.

Yezd, in pre-Mahomedan times, was a great sanctuary of the Gueber worship, though now it is a seat of fanatical Mahomedanism. It is, however, one of the few places where the old religion lingers. In 1859 there were reckoned 850 families of Guebers in Yezd and fifteen adjoining villages, but they diminish rapidly.

The silk manufactures still continue, and with other weaving employ

a large part of the population. The Yazdi which Polo mentions, finds a place in the Persian dictionaries, and is spoken of by D'Herbelot as Kumásh-i-Yezdi, "Yezd stuff." Yezd is still a place of important trade, and carries on a thriving commerce with India by Bandar Abbási. A visitor in the end of 1865 says: "The external trade appears to be very considerable, and the merchants of Yezd are reputed to be amongst the most enterprising and respectable of their class in Persia. Some of their agents have lately gone, not only to Bombay, but to the Mauritius, Java, and China."

(Ilch. I. 67-8; Khanikoff, Mém. p. 202; Report by Major R. M. Smith, R.E.)

Yezd was visited by Friar Odoric, who calls it the third best city of the Persian emperor.

NOTE 2.-I fancy Della Valle correctly generalizes when he says of Persian travelling that "you always travel in a plain, but you always have mountains on either hand" (I. 462). The distance from Yezd to Kerman is, according to Khanikoff's survey, 314 kilomètres, or about 195 miles. Ramusio makes the time eight days, which is probably the better reading, giving a little over 24 m. a day. Westergaard in 1844 and Khanikoff in 1859, took ten days; Col. Goldsmid and Major Smith in 1865 twelve.

Khanikoff observes on this passage: "This notice of woods easy to ride through, covering the plain of Yezd, is very curious. Now you find it a plain of great extent indeed from N.W. to S. E., but narrow and arid; indeed I saw in it only thirteen inhabited spots, counting two caravanserais. Water for the inhabitants is brought from a great distance by subterraneous conduits, a practice which may have tended to desiccate the soil, for every trace of wood has completely disappeared."

Abbott travelled from Yezd to Kirman in 1849, by a road through Bafk, cast of the usual road, which Khanikoff followed, and parallel to it; and it is worthy of note that he found circumstances more accordant with Marco's description. Before getting to Bafk he says of the plain that it "extends to a great distance north and south, and is probably twenty miles in breadth;" whilst Bafk "is remarkable for its groves of date-trees, in the midst of which it stands, and which occupy a considerable space." Further on he speaks of "wild tufts and bushes growing abundantly," and then of "thickets of the Ghez tree." He heard of the wild asses, but did not see any. In his report to the Foreign Office, alluding to Marco Polo's account, he says "It is still true that wild asses and other game are found in the wooded spots on the road." This is the Asinus Onager, the Gor Khar of Persia, or Kulan of the Tartars. (Khan. Mém. p. 200; Id. sur Marco Polo, p. 21; J. R. G. S. XXV. 20-29; Mr. Abbott's M.S. Report in Foreign Office.)

CHAPTER XVII.

CONCERNING THE KINGDOM OF KERMAN.

KERMAN is a kingdom which is also properly in Persia, and formerly it had a hereditary prince. Since the Tartars conquered the country the rule is no longer hereditary, but the Tartar sends to administer whatever lord he pleases.' In this kingdom are produced the stones called turquoises in great abundance; they are found in the mountains, where they are extracted from the rocks. There are also plenty of veins of steel and Ondanique.' The people are very skilful in making harness of war; their saddles, bridles, spurs, swords, bows, quivers, and arms of every kind, are very well made indeed according to the fashion of those parts. The ladies of the country and their daughters also produce exquisite needlework in the embroidery of silk stuffs in different colours, with figures of beasts and birds, trees and flowers, and a variety of other patterns. They work hangings for the use of noblemen so deftly that they are marvels to see, as well as cushions, pillows, quilts, and all sorts of things.+

In the mountains of Kerman are found the best falcons in the world. They are inferior in size to the Peregrine, red on the breast, under the neck, and between the thighs; their flight so swift that no bird can escape them."

On quitting the city you ride on for seven days, always finding towns, villages, and handsome dwelling-houses, so that it is very pleasant travelling; and there is excellent sport also to be had by the way in hunting and hawking. When you have ridden those seven days over a plain country, you come to a great mountain; and when you have got to the top of the pass you find a great descent which occupies some two days to go down. All along you find a variety and abundance of fruits; and in former days there were plenty of inhabited places on the road, but now there are none; and you meet with only a few people looking